Content

1. PM SVANidhi: From Survival to Self-Reliance
2. What is Bangladesh’s Padma Barrage?
3. UN places Israel and Russia on sexual violence blacklist
4. Why do cities get polluted in summer?
5. Ethical use of AI in cultural space to be a key focus area at BRICS culture meetings
6. Delhi HC recognises ‘Right to be Forgotten’, lays down rules for de-indexing judicial records
7. The overlooke war and humanitarian disaster in South Sudan

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PM SVANidhi: From Survival to Self-Reliance

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Why in News?

• The Prime Minister Street Vendor’s AtmaNirbhar Nidhi (PM SVANidhi) scheme completed 6 years since its launch on 1 June 2020 by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs.
• The government highlighted the scheme’s role in transforming street vendors from informal survival-based livelihoods to financially empowered micro-entrepreneurs.

Relevance

• GS II – Welfare Schemes, Urban Governance, Inclusive Development
• GS III – Financial Inclusion, Informal Economy, Digital Economy

Practice Question

“PM SVANidhi represents a transition from welfare-based assistance to credit-led empowerment of the urban informal sector.” Examine its significance in promoting inclusive urbanisation and financial inclusion. (250 words)

PM SVANidhi: Core Features

About the Scheme

• PM SVANidhi is a Central Sector Scheme launched in June 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic to support urban street vendors affected by lockdown-induced economic disruption.
• It is the first dedicated micro-credit scheme for street vendors providing collateral-free working capital loans backed by a government credit guarantee mechanism.

Institutional Framework

• Implemented by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs in collaboration with the Department of Financial Services.
• Small Industries Development Bank of India acts as the technical partner and manages the Credit Guarantee Fund for lending institutions.

Loan Structure

• Vendors receive progressive collateral-free loans in three tranches:
  • ₹15,000 (1st tranche)
  • ₹25,000 (2nd tranche)
  • ₹50,000 (3rd tranche)
• Timely repayment improves credit history, enabling access to higher-value institutional loans.

Digital Inclusion Components

• Vendors receive cashback incentives up to ₹1,600 annually for adopting digital payments through UPI-based transactions.
• Successful borrowers become eligible for UPI-linked RuPay Credit Cards with limits up to ₹30,000.

Welfare Convergence: SVANidhi se Samriddhi

• The SVANidhi se Samriddhi (SSS) initiative maps the socio-economic profile of beneficiaries and links them to 8 central welfare schemes.
• Important schemes include:
  • Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana
  • Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana
  • Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana
  • One Nation One Ration Card
  • Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maandhan Yojana.

Constitutional & Legal Dimensions

Constitutional Linkages

• Supports Article 19(1)(g) guaranteeing the freedom to practice any occupation, trade or business.
• Advances Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs), especially:
  • Article 38 – social and economic justice
  • Article 39(a) – adequate livelihood
  • Article 41 – right to work and public assistance.

Street Vendors Act Integration

• Complements the Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014 by recognising vendors as legitimate urban economic actors rather than encroachers.
• Encourages formalisation through vendor identification, municipal databases and financial linkages.

Governance & Administrative Significance

Formalisation of Informal Economy

• The scheme represents a major shift from welfare-oriented subsidy models toward credit-led empowerment and formal financial integration.
• It institutionalises vendor databases, improving urban governance, policy targeting and municipal planning capacity.

Strengthening Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)

• Urban Local Bodies played a key role in vendor identification, loan facilitation and awareness generation.
• Enhances the role of municipalities in implementing inclusive urban governance models.

Digital Governance Model

• Integration with UPI, Aadhaar, and banking platforms reflects India’s growing Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) ecosystem.
• Promotes paperless governance, direct transfers and transparent subsidy administration.

Economic Dimensions

Massive Financial Inclusion

• Over 75.5 lakh beneficiaries have availed more than 1.12 crore loans amounting to over ₹17,800 crore.
• Nearly 95% beneficiaries accessed formal institutional credit for the first time, reducing dependence on moneylenders charging exploitative interest rates.

Increased Creditworthiness

• Around 30% beneficiaries later accessed additional institutional credit beyond PM SVANidhi, indicating creation of formal credit histories.
• Demonstrates how micro-credit can integrate informal workers into the formal banking ecosystem.

Income Enhancement

• Independent impact assessments reported an average annual income increase of nearly 20% among beneficiaries.
• Working capital availability improved inventory management, business diversification and income stability.

Urban Economic Multiplier

• Street vendors support urban supply chains by providing low-cost goods and services to low-income and middle-class households.
• Enhancing vendor productivity contributes to urban consumption, local employment and grassroots entrepreneurship.

Social Dimensions

Gender Inclusion

• Nearly 46% beneficiaries are women, reflecting strong gender inclusion in urban self-employment.
• Financial independence strengthens women’s decision-making power and household welfare outcomes.

Inclusion of Marginalised Communities

• About 70% beneficiaries belong to marginalised communities, including SCs, STs and OBCs.
• The scheme addresses long-standing exclusion from formal finance and social protection systems.

Improvement in Household Welfare

• Beneficiaries reported better access to:
  • nutritious food
  • healthcare
  • children’s education
  • improved housing stability.
• Shows the strong linkage between livelihood security and broader human development indicators.

Social Security Expansion

• More than 50 lakh vendor families were profiled under SVANidhi se Samriddhi, receiving over 1.52 crore welfare benefits through converged schemes.
• Reflects the movement from isolated schemes toward an integrated social protection architecture.

Digital & Technological Dimensions

Expansion of Digital Payments

• Over 55 lakh vendors have been digitally onboarded under PM SVANidhi.
• Beneficiaries conducted more than 841 crore digital transactions worth nearly ₹8.96 lakh crore.

Digital Literacy and Behavioural Change

• Cashback incentives encouraged small vendors to adopt QR-code based payments and digital bookkeeping.
• Builds long-term financial discipline and improves transaction traceability.

DPI-Based Financial Ecosystem

• PM SVANidhi demonstrates the potential of combining:
  • Jan Dhan accounts
  • Aadhaar authentication
  • UPI payments
  • RuPay cards
    into a unified inclusion framework.

Challenges & Criticisms

Exclusion Errors

• Many migrant or unregistered vendors lacked official vending certificates, limiting access during initial implementation.
• Identification challenges remain acute in smaller towns and peri-urban areas.

Credit Limit Constraints

• Loan sizes of ₹15,000–₹50,000 may be insufficient for scaling businesses in high-cost urban markets.
• Inflation and rising input costs reduce the real value of assistance.

Digital Divide

• Elderly vendors, women and digitally illiterate groups still face difficulties using digital payment systems and banking applications.
• Cyber fraud and lack of digital awareness remain concerns.

Urban Regulatory Issues

• Despite financial support, many vendors continue facing:
  • eviction drives
  • harassment
  • lack of designated vending zones
  • municipal corruption.
• Credit support alone cannot resolve structural urban informality.

Limited Long-Term Enterprise Support

• The scheme primarily focuses on working capital rather than business expansion, skill upgradation or market integration.
• Absence of strong linkages with e-commerce and formal retail networks limits scalability.

Way Forward

Expand Credit Architecture

• Increase loan ceilings and provide differentiated credit products based on business scale and repayment history.
• Introduce micro-insurance and inventory financing models.

Strengthen Legal Protection

• Ensure effective implementation of the Street Vendors Act, 2014 through functional Town Vending Committees and designated vending zones.

Build Digital Capacity

• Expand financial literacy and cybersecurity awareness programmes for digitally vulnerable groups.

Integrate with Urban Planning

• Include street vending within smart city planning, transit-oriented development and urban master plans.

Promote Enterprise Growth

• Link vendors with:
  • e-commerce platforms
  • food safety certification
  • skill development missions
  • MSME value chains.

Enhance Data Governance

• Build dynamic vendor databases integrated with municipal GIS systems for evidence-based policymaking.

Prelims Pointers

• PM SVANidhi is a Central Sector Scheme launched in 2020.
• Implemented by MoHUA with SIDBI as technical partner.
• Provides collateral-free working capital loans to street vendors.
• Loan tranches: ₹15,000 → ₹25,000 → ₹50,000.
• Includes cashback incentives for digital payments.
• “SVANidhi se Samriddhi” links beneficiaries to 8 welfare schemes.
• Complements the Street Vendors Act, 2014.

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What is Bangladesh’s Padma Barrage?

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Why in News?

• Bangladesh approved the Padma Barrage Project on the Padma River (Bangladesh stretch of the Ganga River) to address chronic water scarcity in its southwest region.
• The project has revived debates on transboundary river governance, ecological sustainability and the future of the 1996 Ganges Water Sharing Treaty due for renewal in December 2026.

Relevance

• GS II – India–Bangladesh Relations, Transboundary River Governance
• GS III – Water Resources, Environmental Impact Assessment, Climate Adaptation

Practice Question

The proposed Padma Barrage Project highlights the growing tension between water security and ecological sustainability in transboundary river systems. Discuss in the context of India–Bangladesh relations. (250 words)

About the Padma Barrage Project

Location & Infrastructure

• The barrage will be constructed in the Rajbari district of Bangladesh on the Padma River, aiming to regulate dry-season flows and improve irrigation capacity.
• The proposed barrage will be 2.1 km long with 78 spillway gates, undersluices, fish passages, navigation locks and embankments.

Hydrological Capacity

• The project will impound nearly 2.9 billion cubic metres of water, significantly altering downstream hydrology and seasonal water availability.
• It includes a proposed 113 MW hydropower generation component, integrating irrigation and energy objectives.

Claimed Benefits

• Bangladesh estimates the project will impact around 37% of the country’s land area and irrigate nearly 2.88 million hectares of farmland.
• Intended to mitigate drought-like conditions attributed to reduced seasonal flows after construction of India’s Farakka Barrage.

Historical & Geographical Context

Padma River

• The Padma is the name given to the Ganga River after it enters Bangladesh.
• It eventually merges with the Jamuna River (Brahmaputra in Bangladesh) and later with the Meghna River before entering the Bay of Bengal.

Farakka Barrage

• Farakka Barrage is located in Murshidabad and Malda districts of West Bengal.
• Constructed to divert water into the Bhagirathi-Hooghly system to maintain navigability of Kolkata Port.
• Features a Feeder Canal with designed capacity of 40,000 cusecs.

India–Bangladesh Water Sharing Dimension

Ganges Water Sharing Treaty, 1996

• India and Bangladesh signed the 30-year Ganges Water Sharing Treaty in 1996 to share dry-season flows at Farakka.
• The treaty expires in December 2026, making renegotiation strategically sensitive for bilateral relations.

Core Bilateral Concerns

• Bangladesh argues that upstream diversion at Farakka reduced dry-season river discharge, intensifying:
  • drought conditions
  • salinity intrusion
  • agricultural distress
  • ecosystem degradation in southwest Bangladesh.
• India maintains Farakka is essential for sustaining Kolkata Port and regional river navigation.

Strategic Significance

• The Padma Barrage reflects Bangladesh’s attempt to reduce dependence on upstream flow variability through domestic river engineering.
• It may become a negotiating instrument during future water-sharing discussions with India.

Constitutional, Legal & International Dimensions

International Water Law Principles

• Raises issues related to the principles of:
  • equitable and reasonable utilisation
  • no significant harm
  • prior notification and cooperation in transboundary rivers.
• These principles are reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses.

Hydro-Diplomacy Challenges

• South Asia lacks a robust basin-wide institutional framework comparable to the Mekong River Commission or European river governance systems.
• Bilateral river governance remains fragmented and often driven by strategic mistrust rather than ecological planning.

Economic Dimensions

Irrigation & Agricultural Benefits

• Bangladesh expects irrigation support for 2.88 million hectares, potentially improving crop productivity and food security in drought-prone districts.
• Enhanced water storage may reduce dependence on groundwater extraction and improve dry-season cultivation.

Energy Generation

• The proposed 113 MW hydropower generation could contribute to Bangladesh’s renewable energy mix and reduce fossil-fuel dependence.

Inland Navigation

• Navigation locks may improve inland water transport, reducing logistics costs and strengthening regional connectivity.

Regional Economic Security

• Stable water availability is crucial for Bangladesh’s agriculture-dependent rural economy and export-oriented sectors linked to agro-processing.

Environmental & Ecological Concerns

Alteration of Natural River Flow

• Mega-barrages disrupt the natural hydrological cycle by modifying seasonal flooding, sediment transport and river morphology.
• Such alterations can destabilise delta ecosystems already vulnerable to climate change.

Sedimentation Risks

• Barrages often trap sediments upstream, affecting downstream nutrient flows and increasing riverbed instability.
• Unpredictable sediment deposition may reduce long-term effectiveness of the barrage.

Waterlogging & Salinity

• Critics warn large impoundments can increase:
  • waterlogging
  • soil degradation
  • salinity accumulation in deltaic regions.
• This may ultimately reduce agricultural productivity.

Fisheries Impact

• Bangladesh’s riverine fisheries are highly sensitive to flow disruption and blocked fish migration pathways.
• Fish passages may not fully offset ecological fragmentation caused by the barrage.

Climate Change Vulnerability

• The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta is among the world’s most climate-vulnerable regions.
• Hard-engineering approaches may reduce ecosystem resilience against floods, cyclones and sea-level rise.

Global Comparative Perspective

South Asian Trend: More River Barriers

• Countries in South Asia increasingly rely on dams and barrages for water security, irrigation and hydropower.
• Reflects developmental priorities focused on infrastructure-led resource control.

Western Trend: River Restoration

• Europe and North America are increasingly dismantling obsolete dams to restore free-flowing rivers and ecological connectivity.
• In 2025, 21 European countries removed 603 river barriers, reflecting a shift toward ecological restoration models.

Emerging Debate

• The Padma Barrage symbolises the global debate between:
  • engineering rivers for economic control, versus
  • restoring natural river ecosystems for long-term sustainability.

Governance & Policy Issues

Need for Basin-Level Governance

• River systems like the Ganga require integrated basin management involving:
  • India
  • Bangladesh
  • Nepal
  • Bhutan.
• Fragmented national interventions can create cascading ecological and political consequences.

Public Participation Deficit

• Environmental groups criticised the speed of project approval and limited public scrutiny.
• Large river projects require stronger environmental impact assessments and local stakeholder consultations.

Data Transparency Issues

• Hydrological data-sharing between India and Bangladesh remains limited and politically sensitive.
• Scientific cooperation is essential for evidence-based river management.

Way Forward

Renew the Ganges Treaty with Ecological Focus

• India and Bangladesh should renegotiate the 1996 Ganges Water Sharing Treaty using climate-resilient and ecological-flow principles.

Promote Environmental Flows

• Ensure minimum ecological flow requirements to sustain fisheries, sediment transport and delta health.

Integrated River Basin Management

• Shift from isolated infrastructure projects toward basin-wide planning integrating hydrology, agriculture, ecology and climate adaptation.

Strengthen Environmental Governance

• Conduct cumulative environmental impact assessments rather than project-specific studies alone.

Nature-Based Solutions

• Combine barrages with:
  • wetland restoration
  • groundwater recharge
  • floodplain conservation
  • climate-resilient agriculture.

Prelims Pointers

• Padma River is the Bangladesh stretch of the Ganga River.
• Farakka Barrage is located in West Bengal.
• Constructed mainly to improve navigability of Kolkata Port.
• The 1996 Ganges Water Sharing Treaty is valid for 30 years and expires in 2026.
• Proposed Padma Barrage includes 113 MW hydropower generation.
• Europe removed 603 river barriers in 2025 to restore river ecosystems.

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UN places Israel and Russia on sexual violence blacklist

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Why in News?

• The United Nations added Israel and Russia to the UN blacklist for conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) in the Secretary-General’s 2025 annual report.
• Israel reacted sharply, announcing suspension of ties with UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres, while Ukraine welcomed Russia’s inclusion.

Relevance

• GS II – United Nations, International Organisations, Human Rights
• GS III – Internal Security, Conflict Zones, Humanitarian Issues
• GS IV – Ethics in Warfare, Human Dignity, International Humanitarian Law

Practice Question

Conflict-related sexual violence has emerged as a strategic tool in contemporary warfare. Analyse the limitations of existing international mechanisms in ensuring accountability and humanitarian protection. (250 words)

What is Conflict-Related Sexual Violence (CRSV)?

Definition

• CRSV includes rape, gang rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilisation, genital violence and sexual torture directly or indirectly linked to armed conflict.
• Recognised as a grave violation under:
  • International Humanitarian Law (IHL)
  • International Human Rights Law
  • Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC).

UN Monitoring Mechanism

• The blacklist forms part of the annual report of the UN Secretary-General on CRSV prepared by the Office of the Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict.
• The list identifies parties “credibly suspected” of systematic sexual violence during conflict situations.

Key Findings of the 2025 UN Report

Scale of Violence

• The report documented nearly 10,000 verified cases globally in 2025, representing a 100% increase over 2024 according to UN Special Representative Pramila Patten.
• The annex lists 77 parties, including 62 non-state actors, accused of patterns of CRSV.

Israel-Related Findings

• The UN verified 31 cases involving Palestinians from Gaza and the occupied West Bank between 2023–2025.
• Violations allegedly included:
  • rape and gang rape
  • genital violence
  • forced nudity
  • humiliating strip searches
  • sexual torture during detention and interrogation.

Russia-Related Findings

• The UN Human Rights Monitoring Mission verified 310 CRSV cases linked to Russian armed and security forces in Ukraine.
• Victims included 280 men, 26 women and 4 girls, highlighting that CRSV increasingly targets men and boys in detention settings.

Hamas Already Listed

• Hamas was already included in the blacklist following the October 7, 2023 attacks on Israel.

International Humanitarian Law (IHL) Dimension

Sexual Violence as War Crime

• Under the International Criminal Court framework, systematic sexual violence may constitute:
  • War Crimes
  • Crimes Against Humanity
  • potentially Genocide, if intended to destroy protected groups.

Geneva Convention Framework

• The Geneva Conventions prohibit torture, degrading treatment and violence against civilians and prisoners during armed conflict.
• Sexual violence violates the principles of:
  • distinction
  • proportionality
  • humane treatment.

UNSC Resolution 1325

• United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 recognised sexual violence as a peace and security issue and called for protection of women in conflict zones.
• Later resolutions like 1820, 1888 and 2467 strengthened accountability mechanisms for CRSV.

Geopolitical & Diplomatic Dimensions

Israel–UN Tensions

• Israel accused the UN of political bias and objected to being listed alongside Hamas and terrorist groups.
• Israel’s decision to sever ties with the Secretary-General’s office reflects deepening distrust between Israel and UN institutions since the Gaza war.

Russia–Ukraine Conflict

• Russia’s inclusion strengthens Ukraine’s diplomatic efforts to frame Russian conduct as systematic violations of international law.
• CRSV allegations increasingly form part of broader hybrid warfare narratives and accountability campaigns.

Reputational Consequences

• Listing does not automatically impose sanctions, but creates substantial diplomatic and reputational pressure.
• Repeatedly listed states may face restrictions in participation in UN peacekeeping operations.

Human Rights & Gender Dimensions

Weaponisation of Sexual Violence

• CRSV is often used strategically to:
  • terrorise populations
  • extract confessions
  • humiliate communities
  • enforce ethnic domination
  • break civilian morale.

Expanding Victim Profile

• The report highlights increasing violence against:
  • men and boys
  • journalists
  • human-rights defenders
  • detainees.
• Reflects broader recognition that CRSV is not exclusively gendered against women.

Underreporting Crisis

• UN officials described verified cases as only the “tip of the iceberg” due to:
  • social stigma
  • fear of retaliation
  • weak reporting systems
  • collapse of institutions during war.

Governance & Institutional Challenges

Verification Difficulties

• Conflict zones like Gaza and occupied territories face severe restrictions on:
  • independent investigations
  • humanitarian access
  • evidence collection.
• This creates disputes regarding attribution and credibility.

Politicisation of Human Rights Mechanisms

• Powerful states frequently accuse international institutions of selective targeting and politicisation.
• Such perceptions weaken confidence in multilateral accountability systems.

Enforcement Deficit

• International law lacks strong enforcement mechanisms against major military powers.
• Accountability often depends on geopolitical alignments within bodies like the United Nations Security Council.

Broader Global Trends

Rising CRSV Worldwide

• The UN reported a doubling of verified CRSV cases in 2025, reflecting intensifying conflicts globally including:
  • Gaza
  • Ukraine
  • Sudan
  • Democratic Republic of Congo
  • Myanmar.

Non-State Actors Dominance

• Out of 77 listed parties, 62 are non-state armed groups, showing how civil wars and insurgencies increasingly drive CRSV incidents.

Weakening Humanitarian Norms

• Growing disregard for international humanitarian norms indicates erosion of post-World War II legal frameworks amid prolonged geopolitical fragmentation.

India’s Perspective

India’s Traditional Position

• India consistently supports:
  • protection of civilians in conflict
  • adherence to international humanitarian law
  • peaceful resolution through diplomacy.

Balancing Diplomacy

• India maintains strategic relations with:
  • Israel
  • Russia
  • Palestine
    while advocating dialogue-based conflict resolution.
• The issue highlights India’s challenge in balancing strategic partnerships with principled multilateral commitments.

Peacekeeping Relevance

• India, as one of the largest UN peacekeeping contributors historically, has strong institutional interest in maintaining credibility of international humanitarian standards.

Critical Analysis

Accountability vs Geopolitics

• The blacklist reflects growing efforts to strengthen accountability for wartime sexual violence, but enforcement remains uneven due to geopolitical power asymmetries.

Crisis of Multilateralism

• Increasing confrontation between states and UN institutions demonstrates weakening trust in multilateral governance mechanisms.

Limits of Naming-and-Shaming

• Public listing creates reputational costs but may not significantly alter behaviour without:
  • sanctions
  • judicial accountability
  • ceasefire enforcement
  • independent investigations.

Humanitarian Catastrophe in Modern Wars

• The findings underline how contemporary conflicts increasingly blur distinctions between combatants and civilians, with sexual violence emerging as a systematic tool of coercion.

Way Forward

Strengthen International Investigations

• Expand independent fact-finding missions with guaranteed humanitarian access and forensic support.

Enhance Survivor-Centric Justice

• Ensure rehabilitation, trauma care, legal aid and witness protection for survivors of CRSV.

Reform UN Accountability Mechanisms

• Improve transparency and consistency in listing procedures to reduce allegations of politicisation.

Strengthen International Humanitarian Law Compliance

• States must integrate stronger military training, command accountability and zero-tolerance protocols regarding sexual violence.

Promote Ceasefires & Humanitarian Corridors

• Long-term reduction of CRSV ultimately depends on conflict de-escalation, humanitarian access and negotiated settlements.

Prelims Pointers

• Conflict-Related Sexual Violence (CRSV) is monitored by the UN Secretary-General’s annual report.
• The blacklist identifies parties “credibly suspected” of systematic sexual violence during conflicts.
• UNSC Resolution 1325 relates to Women, Peace and Security.
• The International Criminal Court treats systematic sexual violence as war crimes/crimes against humanity.
• The 2025 report documented nearly 10,000 verified cases globally.
• The blacklist includes both state actors and non-state armed groups.

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Why do cities get polluted in summer?

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Why in News?

• The Commission for Air Quality Management repeatedly imposed and revoked Stage-1 GRAP restrictions during the summer of 2026, highlighting the rise of non-winter pollution episodes in Indian cities.
• Between 1 April–31 May 2026, Delhi recorded:
  • 54 days exceeding PM10 standards
  • 40 days with ozone breaches at one or more monitoring stations.

Relevance

• GS III – Environment Pollution, Urbanisation, Climate Change
• GS II – Governance and Urban Administration

Practice Question

Air pollution in India is increasingly becoming a year-round crisis rather than a seasonal phenomenon. Discuss the causes behind rising summer pollution and suggest policy measures required for effective mitigation. (250 words)

Understanding Summer Air Pollution

Shift from Winter Smog to Summer Pollution

• Winter pollution in North India is dominated by PM2.5 due to temperature inversion, stagnant winds and biomass burning.
• Summer pollution is increasingly driven by:
  • PM10 (coarse particulate matter)
  • Ground-level ozone (O₃)
    triggered by heat, sunlight and dust mobilisation.

Key Pollutants in Summer

PM10

• PM10 refers to particulate matter with diameter less than 10 micrometres.
• Main summer sources include:
  • dust storms
  • road dust resuspension
  • construction activity
  • industrial emissions
  • vehicular movement.

Ground-Level Ozone

• Ozone is a secondary pollutant formed when:
  • Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
  • Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
    react under intense sunlight and heat.
• Major sources include:
  • vehicle exhaust
  • industrial solvents
  • paints
  • fuel combustion.

Data & Evidence

Delhi Pollution Data (Summer 2026)

• Delhi witnessed 54 PM10 exceedance days in just two summer months despite stronger atmospheric dispersion conditions.
• At least one CAAQMS station breached the ozone standard (180 µg/m³) on 40 days.

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

• India’s 24-hour PM10 standard under NAAQS is 100 µg/m³.
• Ozone’s hourly threshold is 180 µg/m³.

Multi-City Trend

• Cities like:
  • Mumbai
  • Chennai
  • Hyderabad
  • Bengaluru
  • Kolkata
    also recorded repeated PM10 and ozone spikes during summer 2026.

Global Burden

• According to World Health Organization, air pollution causes nearly 7 million premature deaths annually worldwide.
• India remains among the countries with the highest urban particulate pollution burden globally.

Meteorological & Scientific Dimensions

Why Does PM10 Rise in Summer?

Dust Storm Dynamics

• Summer heating creates a low-pressure zone over the Indian subcontinent interacting with high-pressure systems over West Asia.
• This produces hot winds and dust transport from:
  • the Thar Desert
  • West Asia
    towards the Indo-Gangetic Plain.

Loo and Andhi Phenomena

• Loo refers to hot, dusty winds common in North India carrying suspended particles over long distances.
• Andhi are localised dust storms generated by thunderstorm downdrafts lifting loose dust into the atmosphere.

Road Dust Resuspension

• Dry summer conditions and vehicular movement over damaged roads resuspend settled dust particles, significantly increasing PM10 concentration.

Why Does Ozone Increase During Heatwaves?

Photochemical Reactions

• Ozone formation accelerates during:
  • high temperatures
  • intense solar radiation
  • stagnant atmospheric conditions.
• Heatwaves therefore intensify photochemical smog formation.

Urban Emission Sources

• NOx emissions mainly originate from:
  • diesel vehicles
  • thermal power plants
  • industrial combustion.
• VOCs originate from:
  • fuel evaporation
  • solvents
  • paints
  • petrochemical industries.

Climate Change Link

• Rising temperatures due to climate change are expected to increase ozone formation frequency and intensity across Indian cities.

Health Dimensions

Respiratory & Cardiovascular Impacts

• PM10 and ozone exposure can trigger:
  • asthma
  • COPD
  • bronchitis
  • cardiovascular diseases
  • lung inflammation.

Ozone-Specific Risks

• Unlike PM2.5, ozone strongly irritates lung tissue and reduces pulmonary function even at relatively low exposure durations.

Vulnerable Groups

• High-risk populations include:
  • children
  • elderly persons
  • outdoor workers
  • traffic police
  • construction labourers.

Governance & Policy Dimensions

GRAP Limitations

• Commission for Air Quality Management largely evolved as a winter pollution response mechanism focused on emergency restrictions.
• Summer pollution demonstrates the need for year-round air quality governance.

Air Quality Early Warning System (AQEWS)

• Delhi’s AQEWS was developed after the severe 2018 dust storms and winter smog episodes.
• It now provides:
  • pollutant forecasts
  • meteorological alerts
  • AQI forecasts for 140 Indian cities.

Municipal Innovations

• Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation uses an Air Quality Decision Support System (AQDSS) to monitor construction sites.
• Since October 2025, action was reportedly initiated against 1,000+ construction sites in Mumbai.

Economic & Urbanisation Dimensions

Construction Boom & Dust

• Rapid urban infrastructure growth without effective dust suppression has emerged as a major PM10 contributor.
• Metro projects, highways and real-estate construction generate continuous coarse dust emissions.

Vehicular Growth

• India has over 35 crore registered vehicles, with urban congestion increasing NOx emissions and ozone formation.
• Idling emissions at traffic intersections significantly worsen summer ozone levels.

Informal Urbanisation

• Unpaved roads, debris dumping and weak urban planning increase susceptibility to dust resuspension.

Environmental Dimensions

Seasonal Pollution Misconception

• Public discourse often treats pollution as a “winter-only” problem, neglecting summer atmospheric chemistry.
• Summer pollution differs scientifically but remains equally hazardous.

Climate Change Feedback Loop

• Heatwaves intensify ozone formation, while pollution itself worsens warming through atmospheric interactions.
• Creates a dangerous heat-pollution nexus in Indian megacities.

Ecosystem Impacts

• Ozone damages crops by reducing photosynthesis and agricultural productivity.
• Ground-level ozone also harms urban vegetation and biodiversity.

Challenges

Weak Enforcement

• Dust-control rules at construction sites remain poorly implemented outside winter months.
• Environmental compliance often weakens once GRAP restrictions are lifted.

Fragmented Governance

• Urban pollution management involves multiple agencies with overlapping mandates and poor coordination.

Monitoring Gaps

• Smaller cities still lack dense monitoring infrastructure for ozone and PM10 tracking.

Limited Public Awareness

• Citizens remain less aware of ozone pollution compared to visible winter smog.

Seasonal Policy Bias

• Most interventions remain reactive and winter-centric rather than preventive and annual.

Best Practices & Solutions

Strengthen Dust Management

• Mandatory:
  • anti-smog guns
  • covered construction sites
  • mechanised road sweeping
  • debris transport regulation.

Control Vehicular Emissions

• Expand EV adoption, public transport and congestion pricing mechanisms.
• Strengthen BS-VI compliance and inspection systems.

Ozone-Focused Strategy

• Target VOC emissions from:
  • paints
  • solvents
  • fuel stations
  • industries.
• Current policies disproportionately focus only on particulate matter.

Urban Heat Mitigation

• Increase urban green cover and cool-roof programmes to reduce urban heat island effects that intensify ozone formation.

Forecast-Based Governance

• Use AQEWS and India Meteorological Department forecasts for anticipatory action and public advisories.

Public Behavioural Measures

• Campaigns like Delhi’s “Red Light On, Gaadi Off” reduce idling emissions and ozone precursors.

Critical Analysis

Air Pollution is Now a Year-Round Crisis

• The emergence of summer pollution episodes indicates structural urban environmental stress rather than seasonal anomalies.

PM2.5-Centric Policies are Insufficient

• India’s policy discourse has excessively focused on winter PM2.5 while neglecting PM10 and ozone chemistry.

Urbanisation Without Environmental Planning

• Rapid infrastructure expansion without dust governance is converting cities into chronic pollution hotspots.

Climate Adaptation Challenge

• Rising temperatures will likely intensify ozone pollution, making climate adaptation inseparable from air-quality governance.

Way Forward

Adopt Annual Clean Air Plans

• All major cities should develop season-specific air pollution strategies, not only winter action plans.

Integrate Climate & Air Policies

• Air pollution mitigation must align with heat-action plans and climate resilience frameworks.

Strengthen NCAP

• Expand the scope of National Clean Air Programme to include:
  • ozone reduction targets
  • PM10-specific action
  • summer pollution indicators.

Scientific Urban Planning

• Prioritise dust-resistant road infrastructure, green buffers and decentralised urban mobility systems.

Data-Driven Governance

• Real-time monitoring and source-apportionment studies should guide targeted interventions.

Prelims Pointers

• PM10 = particulate matter ≤10 micrometres.
• Ground-level ozone is a secondary pollutant formed by NOx and VOC reactions under sunlight.
• Commission for Air Quality Management implements GRAP in NCR.
• AQEWS provides AQI forecasts for 140 Indian cities.
• Loo and andhi are summer dust phenomena in North India.
• Ozone differs from the protective stratospheric ozone layer.

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Ethical use of AI in cultural space to be a key focus area at BRICS culture meetings

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Why in News?

• BRICS Culture Working Group meetings beginning in 2026 will deliberate on the ethical use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the cultural and creative sectors. India unveiled the roadmap for the BRICS Culture Track 2026 through the Ministry of Culture.

Relevance

• GS II – BRICS, Cultural Diplomacy, Global Governance
• GS III – Artificial Intelligence, Digital Governance, Intellectual Property Rights

Practice Question

The rise of Generative AI has created new challenges regarding copyright, cultural diversity and digital sovereignty. Examine the need for ethical AI governance in the cultural sector. (250 words)

Key Highlights

• The 2nd BRICS Culture Working Group Meeting will be held in Varanasi, one of the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities, symbolising India’s attempt to combine civilisational heritage with emerging digital technologies and cultural diplomacy.
• The BRICS Culture Track will involve 11 member nations — Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, UAE and Indonesia — along with 10 partner countries, expanding BRICS’ cultural and geopolitical outreach.
• Major themes include:
  • Creative economy & people-to-people cooperation
  • Copyright and ethical AI
  • Cultural heritage protection
  • Return of cultural property
  • Culture-driven sustainable development.

Ethical AI in Cultural Space

• The rise of Generative AI in music, cinema, literature and visual arts has triggered debates over copyright ownership, unauthorised data training, deepfakes and the replacement of human creativity with algorithmic outputs.
• AI models are often trained on copyrighted books, paintings, films and music without explicit creator consent, raising concerns over intellectual property rights, royalty distribution and fair compensation mechanisms for artists and cultural workers.
• Dominance of Western-language datasets in AI systems may marginalise indigenous traditions, local languages and Global South narratives, leading to algorithmic cultural homogenisation and digital invisibility of smaller cultural ecosystems.
• Deepfake technologies can distort historical memory, manipulate cultural symbols and spread misinformation, making ethical AI governance critical for preserving authenticity and public trust in cultural content.
• Ethical AI can also become a powerful preservation tool through:
  • digital archiving
  • heritage restoration
  • language preservation
  • virtual museums
  • AI-assisted cultural mapping.

Economic Dimensions

• According to UNESCO, cultural and creative industries contribute nearly 3.1% of global GDP and support around 48 million jobs worldwide, highlighting the strategic importance of the creative economy.
• India possesses immense creative-economy potential through:
  • 3,000+ traditional craft forms
  • one of the world’s largest film industries
  • expanding gaming and digital creator ecosystems
  • rapidly growing cultural tourism sectors.
• AI-enabled translation, dubbing, recommendation systems and immersive experiences can significantly expand global access to Indian cultural products, strengthening creative exports and digital soft power.
• Cultural industries increasingly influence:
  • employment generation
  • tourism revenue
  • urban regeneration
  • innovation ecosystems
    making culture a strategic economic sector rather than merely a heritage issue.

Cultural Diplomacy & Soft Power

• The BRICS Culture Track reflects the grouping’s attempt to strengthen non-Western cultural cooperation platforms and promote alternative narratives in global governance, technology ethics and cultural representation.
• India’s decision to host meetings in Varanasi strengthens its image as a civilisational state capable of bridging ancient heritage with emerging technologies like AI and digital governance.
• Cultural diplomacy enhances people-to-people connectivity, trust-building and geopolitical influence, complementing traditional diplomacy based on trade, defence and strategic partnerships.
• Discussions on the return of cultural property gain significance amid increasing global demands for repatriation of colonial-era artefacts held in Western museums and institutions.

Governance & Legal Dimensions

• Existing copyright laws globally remain inadequate for AI-generated content because they were designed around human authorship, not machine-generated creative outputs and automated training datasets.
• UNESCO adopted the Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence (2021), emphasising principles of:
  • transparency
  • inclusivity
  • cultural diversity
  • human rights protection.
• India’s evolving AI governance ecosystem under initiatives such as:
  • IndiaAI Mission
  • Digital India
  • Bhashini
  • BharatGen
    aligns with discussions on culturally sensitive and multilingual AI systems.
• Cultural datasets stored and controlled by foreign technology platforms raise concerns regarding digital sovereignty, data colonialism and unequal control over global cultural narratives.

Challenges

• There is currently no universally accepted global legal framework governing AI-generated cultural content, resulting in fragmented regulations and jurisdictional uncertainty.
• Many developing countries lack adequate infrastructure for:
  • digitisation of heritage
  • AI research
  • archival preservation
  • multilingual dataset development.
• AI-driven commercialisation risks exploiting traditional knowledge and indigenous cultural expressions without consent or benefit-sharing mechanisms for local communities.
• BRICS countries themselves differ substantially in:
  • internet governance models
  • censorship approaches
  • data regulations
  • digital rights frameworks
    making consensus-building difficult.

Way Forward

• BRICS nations should develop common principles on:
  • ethical AI use
  • creator rights
  • consent-based data usage
  • cultural sensitivity
  • algorithmic transparency.
• Governments should promote multilingual AI systems trained on local languages, oral traditions and indigenous cultural datasets to ensure inclusive digital representation.
• Stronger international frameworks are needed to prevent unauthorised exploitation of traditional cultural expressions and ensure fair benefit-sharing with local communities.
• India should leverage the BRICS platform to strengthen its role as a leader in ethical digital governance, combining technological innovation with civilisational and cultural preservation.

Prelims Pointers

• BRICS currently has 11 member countries.
• UNESCO adopted the Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence in 2021.
• Ethical AI concerns include:
  • copyright infringement
  • deepfakes
  • algorithmic bias
  • data ownership.

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Delhi HC recognises ‘right to be forgotten’, lays down rules for de-indexing judicial records

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Why in News?

• Delhi High Court recognised the Right to be Forgotten (RTBF) as flowing from the Right to Privacy under Article 21 and directed search engines and digital platforms to de-index judicial records from name-based search results in specific cases.
• Justice Sachin Datta delivered a 144-page judgment while hearing 30+ petitions filed by individuals seeking removal of personal information from the digital public domain.

Relevance

• GS II – Judiciary, Fundamental Rights, Digital Governance
• GS III – Data Protection, Cyber Governance

Practice Question

The recognition of the Right to be Forgotten marks an important evolution in India’s privacy jurisprudence. Critically examine its implications for judicial transparency, freedom of expression and informational privacy. (250 words)

What is the Right to be Forgotten (RTBF)?

• The Right to be Forgotten allows individuals to seek:
  • removal
  • de-indexing
  • masking
    of personal information from publicly accessible digital platforms when continued disclosure no longer serves a legitimate public interest.
• RTBF aims to protect individuals from permanent digital stigma, especially where information relates to:
  • acquitted criminal cases
  • matrimonial disputes
  • quashed proceedings
  • settled matters
  • incidental mentions in judicial records.
• The judgment clarified that RTBF does not imply complete erasure of judicial records, but limits easy public discoverability through search engines.

Constitutional & Legal Dimensions

Article 21 and Right to Privacy

• The High Court held that RTBF flows from Article 21, which guarantees the Right to Life and Personal Liberty, including the right to live with:
  • dignity
  • reputation
  • autonomy
  • informational privacy.
• The judgment builds upon the landmark Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017) verdict where the Supreme Court declared the Right to Privacy a fundamental right.
• The Court observed that digital permanence can disproportionately harm individuals even after acquittal or settlement, violating the principles of rehabilitation, dignity and social reintegration.

Key Features of the Judgment

De-indexing Framework

• The Court directed:
  • search engines
  • legal database platforms
  • digital intermediaries
    to remove specified judgments from name-based searchability while preserving judicial records within official archives.
• The judgment distinguished between:
  • public availability of court records and
  • algorithmic amplification through search engines.

Case-by-Case Balancing Test

• The Court emphasised that RTBF is not absolute and must be balanced against:
  • freedom of speech
  • public interest
  • judicial transparency
  • right to information.
• Courts must assess factors such as:
  • nature of offence
  • time elapsed
  • public role of the individual
  • continuing relevance of disclosure
  • extent of reputational harm.

Protection of Reputation

• The Court recognised that unrestricted online accessibility of judicial records may cause:
  • employment discrimination
  • social exclusion
  • psychological distress
  • reputational damage
    even after legal exoneration.

Digital Governance & Technology Dimensions

Problem of Digital Permanence

• Search engines create a form of perpetual public memory, where even outdated or irrelevant information remains permanently searchable and easily accessible.
• Unlike physical archives, digital platforms amplify visibility through:
  • indexing algorithms
  • metadata tagging
  • instant searchability
    creating disproportionate long-term consequences.

Rise of Datafication

• The judgment reflects growing concerns over:
  • surveillance capitalism
  • algorithmic profiling
  • data permanence
  • loss of informational self-determination.

Platform Responsibility

• The ruling increases accountability of:
  • Google-like search engines
  • legal information portals
  • digital intermediaries
    in balancing privacy with public access.

Governance & Policy Dimensions

Absence of Comprehensive Law

• India currently lacks a dedicated statutory framework explicitly recognising RTBF, despite rapid digitalisation and rising privacy disputes.
• The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 provides some rights regarding data correction and erasure, but does not comprehensively codify RTBF in judicial contexts.

Judicial Activism Filling Legislative Vacuum

• The Delhi High Court observed that constitutional courts can enforce RTBF even in absence of legislation where fundamental rights are implicated.
• Reflects the expanding role of the judiciary in shaping India’s evolving digital constitutionalism.

International Comparisons

European Union (EU)

• The RTBF gained global prominence after the Google Spain v. AEPD (2014) judgment, where the EU recognised individuals’ right to request removal of outdated search results.
• The EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) formally codifies the Right to Erasure under Article 17.

Global Trend

• Countries increasingly recognise privacy rights against excessive digital exposure, though approaches vary depending on:
  • free speech traditions
  • judicial transparency norms
  • data protection laws.

Ethical & Social Dimensions

Dignity in the Digital Age

• The judgment reinforces that human dignity includes the ability to move beyond past accusations, mistakes or disputes without permanent digital punishment.
• Particularly important for:
  • acquitted individuals
  • victims of false accusations
  • survivors of matrimonial conflicts
  • juveniles.

Rehabilitation & Reintegration

• Permanent online stigma may undermine constitutional goals of:
  • rehabilitation
  • restorative justice
  • social reintegration.

Chilling Effect Concerns

• Excessive de-indexing may risk reducing judicial transparency and enabling powerful individuals to suppress legitimate public scrutiny.

Challenges & Criticisms

Conflict with Open Justice Principle

• Indian courts traditionally function under the principle of open justice, where judicial proceedings remain publicly accessible to ensure transparency and accountability.

Subjectivity in Balancing Test

• Determining what constitutes “legitimate public interest” or “continuing relevance” may produce inconsistent judicial outcomes.

Technical Enforcement Issues

• Effective de-indexing across multiple search engines, mirror sites and international servers remains technologically complex.

Risk of Misuse

• Politicians, corporations or influential individuals may attempt to misuse RTBF to suppress inconvenient but legitimate public information.

Critical Analysis

• The judgment marks a major step in developing India’s privacy jurisprudence in the age of algorithmic search and digital permanence.
• It reflects a transition from traditional notions of privacy to informational self-determination, where individuals seek greater control over their digital identities.
• The ruling attempts to strike a constitutional balance between:
  • privacy and dignity
  • freedom of expression
  • public access to justice.
• India’s rapidly expanding digital ecosystem requires stronger safeguards against permanent reputational harm while preserving democratic transparency and media freedom.

Way Forward

• India should enact a comprehensive data protection and RTBF framework clearly defining:
  • scope of erasure
  • judicial oversight
  • intermediary obligations
  • public interest exceptions.
• Standardised judicial guidelines should be developed to ensure uniform application of RTBF across High Courts.
• Search engines and legal databases should establish transparent grievance redressal systems for RTBF-related requests.
• Greater public awareness is needed regarding:
  • digital privacy
  • consent
  • online reputation management
  • responsible data sharing.
• Privacy protections must be balanced carefully with:
  • press freedom
  • judicial transparency
  • citizens’ right to know.

Prelims Pointers

• Article 21 includes the Right to Privacy after the Puttaswamy Judgment (2017).
• The Right to be Forgotten is not yet explicitly codified in Indian law.
• The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 deals with personal data processing and protection.
• The EU’s GDPR Article 17 provides the Right to Erasure.

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The overlooked conflict: Civil war and humanitarian disaster in South Sudan

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Why in News?

• Naib Subedar Sujit Kumar Pradhan, killed while serving with the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), will be posthumously honoured with the Dag Hammarskjöld Medal, awarded to UN peacekeepers who lose their lives during missions.
• Another Indian peacekeeper, Lance Havildar Harbhajan Singh, who died while serving in Democratic Republic of the Congo, is also being honoured.

Relevance

• GS II – United Nations, Peacekeeping, International Relations
• GS III – Internal Conflicts, Humanitarian Crises, Security Challenges

Practice Question

South Sudan illustrates the limitations of post-conflict state-building in fragile societies. Discuss the causes of recurring instability and evaluate the role of UN peacekeeping missions in conflict resolution. (250 words)

South Sudan: Background

• South Sudan became the world’s youngest country in 2011 after separating from Sudan following decades of violent conflict and marginalisation of the southern region.
• Sudan itself gained independence in 1956 after the end of British-Egyptian colonial rule, but ethnic, political and economic divisions between northern and southern regions persisted.
• South Sudan’s independence emerged from the struggle led by the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM), whose major leaders included:
  • Salva Kiir
  • Riek Machar.

Origins of the Civil War

• Political rivalry between Salva Kiir and Riek Machar escalated into a full-scale civil war in 2013, only two years after independence, severely destabilising the fragile new state.
• The conflict quickly acquired an ethnic dimension:
  • Kiir belongs to the Dinka community
  • Machar belongs to the Nuer community
    leading to mass ethnic mobilisation and retaliatory violence.
• The civil war resulted in:
  • mass displacement
  • massacres
  • famine conditions
  • destruction of infrastructure
  • severe humanitarian collapse.

2018 Peace Agreement & Renewed Violence

• After nearly 5 years of fighting, the Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan (2018) sought to establish a power-sharing arrangement and restore peace.
• Under the agreement, Riek Machar returned as Vice President, but critical provisions remained unimplemented, including:
  • national elections
  • disarmament of militias
  • accountability for war crimes
  • security sector reforms.
• In March 2025, fresh clashes erupted after the White Army militia, aligned with Machar, fought government forces, triggering renewed political and military escalation.
• Machar was later placed under house arrest and charged with offences including:
  • murder
  • treason
    deepening fears of another prolonged civil war.

Humanitarian Crisis

• According to a UN report (April 2026), nearly 56% of South Sudan’s population faces high levels of acute food insecurity between April–July 2026.
• The report further estimates that around 700,000 children may suffer from severe acute malnutrition, considered the deadliest form of malnutrition.
• South Sudan’s population is approximately 12 million, yet a large share depends on international food assistance and humanitarian aid for survival.
• Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF/Doctors Without Borders) reported that civilians are surviving on:
  • wild leaves
  • berries
  • fish
    highlighting extreme food insecurity and state collapse.

Attacks on Humanitarian & Medical Infrastructure

• Both government and rebel groups have allegedly attacked:
  • civilians
  • schools
  • hospitals
  • aid facilities
  • humanitarian convoys
    violating international humanitarian law.
• MSF reported that one of its facilities in Lankien was bombed and looted, destroying the only secondary-care medical facility serving nearly 250,000 people in Lankien and Jonglei regions.
• Such attacks severely restrict humanitarian access and worsen mortality from:
  • disease outbreaks
  • malnutrition
  • untreated injuries
  • maternal health crises.

UNMISS: United Nations Mission in South Sudan

Establishment

• United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) was established in July 2011 under UN Security Council Resolution 1996, immediately after South Sudan’s independence.

Mandate

• Under UNSC Resolution 2820 (2026), UNMISS is tasked with:
  • protection of civilians
  • ensuring humanitarian access
  • supporting peace processes
  • preventing political violence
  • monitoring human rights violations.

Scale of Operations

• UNMISS operates one of the world’s largest peacekeeping and humanitarian protection missions due to:
  • persistent civil conflict
  • weak governance
  • widespread displacement
  • ethnic violence.

India’s Role in UN Peacekeeping

• India is the second-largest troop contributor to UNMISS with 4,268 personnel as of 31 March 2026, after Nepal.
• India has historically been among the largest contributors to UN peacekeeping operations, reflecting its commitment to:
  • multilateralism
  • Global South solidarity
  • international peace and security.
• Indian peacekeepers in South Sudan perform roles including:
  • civilian protection
  • engineering support
  • medical services
  • humanitarian assistance
  • conflict stabilisation.
• India has contributed over 2.9 lakh peacekeepers across more than 50 UN missions since independence, one of the largest cumulative contributions globally.

International Relations & Geopolitical Dimensions

• South Sudan occupies strategic importance in the Horn of Africa, a region marked by:
  • fragile states
  • refugee crises
  • ethnic conflicts
  • competition among external powers.
• Continued instability threatens regional spillover into neighbouring countries such as:
  • Sudan
  • Ethiopia
  • Uganda
  • Kenya.
• The crisis also reflects broader failures of post-conflict state-building where political independence was not accompanied by strong institutions, inclusive governance or economic stability.

Governance & State Failure Dimensions

• South Sudan exemplifies challenges faced by newly independent states lacking:
  • institutional capacity
  • national integration
  • stable security structures
  • accountable governance.
• Political power remains heavily personalised around military elites and ethnic loyalties rather than constitutional institutions.
• Delayed implementation of the 2018 peace agreement reflects weak political commitment and absence of effective enforcement mechanisms.

Human Rights & Humanitarian Dimensions

• The conflict has generated large-scale violations including:
  • ethnic massacres
  • sexual violence
  • child soldier recruitment
  • forced displacement
  • attacks on aid workers.
• South Sudan remains one of the world’s most severe humanitarian emergencies, with millions internally displaced or dependent on external aid.
• Repeated attacks on hospitals and humanitarian facilities violate the Geneva Conventions and undermine civilian protection norms.

Challenges Facing UN Peacekeeping

• UN peacekeepers increasingly operate in:
  • fragmented civil wars
  • asymmetric conflicts
  • weak-state environments
    where traditional ceasefire-monitoring mandates are insufficient.
• Peacekeeping missions often face:
  • inadequate resources
  • limited political backing
  • difficult terrain
  • attacks from armed groups
  • restricted operational freedom.
• Absence of durable political settlements limits the effectiveness of even large peacekeeping deployments.

Way Forward

• Full implementation of the 2018 Revitalised Peace Agreement remains critical, including:
  • elections
  • security reforms
  • militia disarmament
  • transitional justice mechanisms.
• Regional organisations such as the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) and the African Union must intensify diplomatic engagement.
• Greater international funding is required for:
  • humanitarian relief
  • food security
  • health systems
  • refugee rehabilitation.
• Protection of medical facilities and humanitarian workers should become a non-negotiable priority under international humanitarian law.
• UN peacekeeping reforms should strengthen:
  • rapid response capacity
  • civilian protection mandates
  • intelligence coordination
  • accountability mechanisms.

Prelims Pointers

• South Sudan became independent in 2011.
• United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) was established under UNSC Resolution 1996.
• India is the second-largest troop contributor to UNMISS in 2026.
• The Dag Hammarskjöld Medal honours UN peacekeepers killed during missions.
• Dinka and Nuer are major ethnic groups in South Sudan.

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