Content Travelling Across the Industrial Corridors of India Indian Railways–Indian Army “Framework of Cooperation” for Post-Retirement Employment Travelling Across the Industrial Corridors of India Why in News?  Union Budget 2026–27 announced an Integrated East Coast Industrial Corridor with a strategic node at Durgapur, expanding corridor-led industrialisation under NICDP to strengthen manufacturing competitiveness and export integration. ₹3,000 crore allocated in Budget Estimates 2026–27 to National Industrial Corridor Development and Implementation Trust (NICDIT), signalling fiscal prioritisation of plug-and-play industrial ecosystems and trunk infrastructure. Across 11 Industrial Corridors, multiple nodes are operational or nearing completion, reflecting acceleration of greenfield industrial cities aligned with PM GatiShakti National Master Plan. Relevance GS Paper III – Economy Manufacturing-led growth; target 25% of GDP. Logistics cost reduction (13–14% of GDP) via DFCs and multimodal hubs. GVC integration and export competitiveness. Large-scale investment (e.g., DMIC ₹2.02 lakh crore) and job creation (~9.39 lakh projected). GS Paper III – Infrastructure Dedicated Freight Corridors; industrial townships (e.g., Dholera SIR). Plug-and-play ecosystems under NICDP and PM GatiShakti. Industrial Corridors What are Industrial Corridors? Industrial Corridors are linear economic regions developed along high-capacity transport networks integrating road, rail, ports, and airports, catalysing industrial clustering and agglomeration economies. Combine industrial townships, logistics parks, manufacturing clusters, and planned urban settlements, ensuring synchronised infrastructure provisioning and reduced transaction costs for globally competitive production. Built along trunk infrastructure like Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs), enabling efficient freight mobility; India’s logistics cost currently around 13–14% of GDP, higher than global benchmarks. Why Do They Matter? Critical for raising manufacturing share toward 25% of GDP and achieving the $5 trillion economy goal through productivity-led industrial growth. Promote regional balance by integrating hinterland states into Global Value Chains (GVCs), reducing excessive coastal concentration of industry. Strengthen exports via SEZ-linked clusters, multimodal logistics hubs, and regulatory simplification aligned with National Logistics Policy. Enable Low-Carbon Industrialisation through renewable energy integration, water recycling, and Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)-based urban design. Institutional and Governance Architecture National Industrial Corridor Development Programme (NICDP) NICDP is the umbrella framework guiding development of 11 corridors through Centre–State partnership, ensuring land pooling, trunk infrastructure, and sustainability-based industrial ecosystems. Anchored in PM GatiShakti, ensuring GIS-based infrastructure integration, better project sequencing, and reduced inter-ministerial silos. Incorporates Low-Carbon City (LCC) principles: renewable energy adoption, public transit systems, solid waste recycling, and reduced conventional power dependence. Institutional Mechanisms National Industrial Corridor Development Corporation Limited (NICDC), incorporated in January 2008, functions as project development and knowledge partner for corridor master planning and investment facilitation. NICDIT, re-designated on 7 December 2016, finances strategic trunk infrastructure; allocated ₹3,000 crore in Budget 2026–27. Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) jointly owned by Centre and States operationalise cooperative federalism and decentralised execution. Major Corridors and Nodes Delhi–Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) DMIC spans six states leveraging Western Dedicated Freight Corridor; Dholera Special Investment Region (DSIR) covers 920 sq km, India’s largest greenfield industrial node. 22.54 sq km Activation Area at Dholera nearly complete; trunk infrastructure operational, enabling semiconductor, electronics, and EV manufacturing investments. Phase-I cities allotted 350 industrial plots, attracting ₹2.02 lakh crore investments across EVs, renewables, pharmaceuticals (Economic Survey 2025–26). Shendra-Bidkin Industrial Area (SBIA) has potential to attract ₹67,815 crore and generate over 55,000 jobs, targeting automotive and aerospace sectors. Chennai–Bengaluru & Vizag–Chennai Corridors Chennai–Bengaluru Industrial Corridor (CBIC) strengthens southern automotive and electronics supply chains across Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh. Vizag–Chennai Industrial Corridor (VCIC) aligns with Act East Policy, promoting port-led development along eastern seaboard. Tumakuru and Krishnapatnam Industrial Areas nearing completion, enhancing logistics efficiency and export-oriented production. Amritsar–Kolkata Industrial Corridor (AKIC) AKIC leverages Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor, integrating northern and eastern states for balanced regional industrial growth. 12 additional projects approved in August 2024 under NICDP at total cost ₹28,602 crore. Cover 25,975 acres, expected to attract ₹1,52,757 crore investment potential and generate 9,39,416 jobs, strengthening labour-intensive manufacturing base. Economic and Developmental Impact Reduce logistics costs toward single-digit GDP share, enhancing export competitiveness and supply-chain reliability. Nearly 9.39 lakh jobs projected under new projects, aiding demographic dividend absorption and formalisation of manufacturing employment. Enable private investment crowding-in by lowering initial capital risks through pre-developed trunk infrastructure. Constitutional and Federal Dimensions Industrial development linked to Concurrent List (Entry 33 – Trade and Commerce) enabling Centre–State legislative cooperation. SPV-based execution reflects Cooperative Federalism, balancing central financing with state-level land and regulatory control. Environmental and Sustainability Lens Incorporate renewable energy, zero-liquid discharge norms, water recycling, and green zoning aligned with Net Zero 2070 commitment. Greenfield expansion risks ecological degradation; strict compliance with Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) norms essential. Challenges  High Logistics Cost: India’s logistics cost remains 13–14% of GDP, compared to 8–9% in OECD countries, reducing price competitiveness of corridor-based exports despite DFC and multimodal investments. Investment Realisation Gap: While Phase-I DMIC cities attracted ₹2.02 lakh crore, 12 new projects (2024) project ₹1.52 lakh crore potential; actual grounding depends on global demand cycles and domestic credit conditions. Regional Imbalance: Western corridor nodes like Dholera (920 sq km) progress faster than eastern nodes under AKIC, reflecting persistent regional industrial disparity and uneven private investor preference. Environmental Stress: India extracts nearly 25% of global groundwater; corridor nodes in water-scarce states risk industrial over-extraction without mandatory reuse and zero-liquid discharge enforcement. Urban Governance Deficit: Municipal revenues in India average around 1% of GDP, limiting financial sustainability of newly created industrial townships for long-term infrastructure maintenance and service delivery. Way Forward Reduce Logistics Cost Below 10% of GDP: Integrate corridors with Dedicated Freight Corridors, National Logistics Policy targets, and operationalise multimodal parks at Dadri and Nangal Chaudhary for freight efficiency gains. Sector–PLI Convergence: Align corridor nodes with PLI sectors (electronics, semiconductors, EVs) to ensure anchor investments, replicating DMIC’s ₹2.02 lakh crore mobilisation model. Water-Smart Industrial Mandates: Enforce Zero Liquid Discharge, 100% treated wastewater reuse, and renewable energy quotas within nodes to align with Net Zero 2070 commitments. Eastern Corridor Incentives: Provide differentiated fiscal and infrastructure incentives for AKIC and Odisha Economic Corridor nodes to correct investment skew and promote balanced regional growth. Outcome-Based Monitoring Framework: Shift evaluation from acreage developed to measurable indicators—actual investment realised, jobs created (target 9.39 lakh), export output generated, audited annually under NICDC supervision. Prelims Pointers NICDC – 2008 incorporation; NICDIT – 2016 re-designation. 11 Industrial Corridors under NICDP; 12 projects approved (2024) costing ₹28,602 crore. Dholera SIR – 920 sq km, India’s largest industrial node under DMIC. Practice Question Industrial Corridors are central to India’s strategy of manufacturing-led growth. Analyse their role in reducing logistics costs, attracting investment, and integrating India into global value chains. Also examine the challenges limiting their full potential. (250 words) Indian Railways–Indian Army “Framework of Cooperation” for Post-Retirement Employment Why in News? On 26 February 2026, Indian Railways and the Indian Army launched a “Framework of Cooperation” to institutionalise post-retirement employment pathways for Ex-Servicemen and Ex-Agniveers. The initiative provides horizontal reservation and contractual engagement, aligning with the broader objectives of the Agnipath Scheme (2022) to ensure structured second-career transitions. In 2024–25 vacancy notifications, 14,788 posts were reserved for Ex-Servicemen, signalling a major public-sector employment push within Railways. Relevance GS Paper II – Governance & Social Justice Agnipath Scheme rehabilitation mechanism. Horizontal reservation for Ex-Servicemen and Ex-Agniveers. Inter-ministerial coordination (Defence–Railways). GS Paper III – Economy & Employment 14,788 posts reserved (2024–25); public-sector job absorption. Skill utilisation and second-career transition. GS Paper III – Security Civil–military logistics synergy (DFCs, USBRL). Veteran integration as element of long-term strategic stability. Institutional and Legal Framework Reservation Architecture 10% horizontal reservation in Level-2/above posts and 20% in Level-1 posts for Ex-Servicemen, embedded within existing Railway recruitment rules. Additional 5% reservation in Level-2/above and 10% in Level-1 posts earmarked specifically for Ex-Agniveers, operationalising rehabilitation under Agnipath policy. Recruitment conducted via Railway Recruitment Boards (RRBs) for Level-2/above and Railway Recruitment Centres (RRCs) for Level-1 through competitive examinations. Employment Numbers and Immediate Measures In 2024–25, 14,788 posts reserved for Ex-Servicemen: 6,485 posts in Level-1 and 8,303 posts in Level-2/above, reflecting structured absorption capacity. Over 5,000 Level-1 posts being processed for contractual hiring of Ex-Servicemen as Pointsmen to address operational vacancies faster. 9 Railway Divisions have signed MoUs with Army organisations to expedite contractual induction pending completion of regular recruitment cycles. Governance and Administrative Dimensions Framework institutionalises Centre–Centre coordination between Ministry of Railways and Ministry of Defence, reducing fragmentation in veteran resettlement policies. Creates a structured support mechanism for transitioning personnel, improving awareness of civilian job opportunities and reducing friction in career shifts. Contractual engagement model addresses vacancy backlogs in critical safety categories such as Pointsmen, ensuring operational continuity. Economic and Employment Impact Indian Railways is among the largest public employers globally; reserving 14,788 posts in one recruitment cycle strengthens formal employment absorption. Early re-employment of retiring soldiers reduces dependency burden and enhances labour productivity by leveraging trained manpower. Supports demographic dividend by utilising relatively young retirees under Agnipath, who exit service after 4 years with structured skilling. Security and Strategic Synergy Railways and Army share logistics synergy; projects like Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) enhance strategic troop mobility and equipment transport. Infrastructure such as Udhampur–Srinagar–Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL) strengthens rapid deployment in sensitive border regions. Skill-sharing initiatives through Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya promote cross-sector technical capacity building. Challenges  Absorption Capacity Risk: With Agnipath releasing approximately 75% of each batch after 4 years, long-term absorption pressure may exceed available Railway quotas. Contractual Precarity: Hiring 5,000+ Pointsmen on contract risks employment insecurity unless transitioned to regular posts within defined timelines. Skill Mismatch Concerns: Military skills may not always directly align with railway technical roles; structured reskilling modules required beyond discipline advantage. Reservation Implementation Complexity: Ensuring horizontal reservation does not distort general recruitment balance requires strict roster management and transparency. Inter-Ministerial Coordination Gaps: Sustained collaboration between Defence and Railways depends on institutionalised data-sharing and monitoring frameworks. Way Forward Create Dedicated Veteran Skill Mapping Portal linking Army exit profiles with Railway job requirements to reduce mismatch and improve placement efficiency. Time-Bound Regularisation Policy ensuring contractual Pointsmen are absorbed through fast-track examinations within defined service duration benchmarks. Expand Reservation Beyond Railways by mandating similar quantified quotas in CPSEs and central ministries to distribute Agniveer absorption load. Establish Annual Outcome Audit measuring number of Ex-Servicemen recruited, retention rates, and vacancy reduction statistics under NIC-style monitoring. Integrated Skilling Certification via Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya aligned with Railway Safety Standards to convert military competencies into civilian-recognised qualifications. Prelims Pointers 20% reservation in Level-1 and 10% in Level-2/above for Ex-Servicemen in Railways. 5% (Level-2/above) and 10% (Level-1) reservation for Ex-Agniveers. 14,788 posts reserved (2024–25); 5,000+ contractual Pointsmen under process. Practice Question The Railways–Army Framework of Cooperation institutionalises post-retirement employment pathways for Ex-Servicemen and Ex-Agniveers. Examine its significance in strengthening social security and administrative coordination. (250 words)  

Content Analysing India’s cycle of deprivation and affluence The shift of critical minerals to India’s strategic centre Analysing India’s cycle of deprivation and affluence Context Recent analysis using CMIE Consumer Pyramids Household Survey (2014–2025) highlights sharp income mobility shifts, revealing rising downward mobility despite official narratives of falling inequality. Study uses real (inflation-adjusted) per capita income and a balanced household panel, allowing dynamic mobility tracking beyond static poverty headcount or Gini coefficients. Findings coincide with two major political cycles (2014–19, 2019–24) and the COVID-19 shock, raising questions about structural resilience and distributional justice. Relevance GS Paper II – Polity & Governance Article 38(2): Minimising income inequalities. Directive Principles (Arts. 39, 41, 43): Livelihood security and distributive justice. Welfare architecture and informal sector recovery post-COVID. Role of data (CMIE panel) in evidence-based policymaking. GS Paper III – Economy Income mobility vs poverty ratio/Gini coefficient. Downward mobility (26.8% in 2025) exceeding upward mobility (23.5%). Rural distress and informal sector fragility. MSMEs (~30% GDP; 45% exports) and employment-intensive growth. Practice Questions  “Rising downward income mobility challenges the constitutional promise of distributive justice.” Examine in the light of Articles 38 and 39.(250 Words) Conceptual Foundations: Income Mobility What is Income Mobility? Income mobility refers to movement of households across income ranks over time, classified as upward, downward, or no change relative to base-year (2014) position. Households grouped into Top 10%, Middle 40%, Bottom 50% based on 2014 per capita income rank, enabling longitudinal assessment of distributional dynamics. Unlike poverty ratio or Gini index, mobility captures directional vulnerability, reflecting lived economic insecurity and opportunity access. National-Level Trends (2014–2025) Downward mobility nearly doubled, rising from 14% (2015) to 26.8% (2025); by 2025, more than one in four households worse-off relative to 2014 position. Share of households remaining in the same income group fell from over 70% to below 50%, signalling erosion of income stability. Upward mobility increased modestly from 14.1% to 23.5%, but consistently lagged behind downward shifts, indicating asymmetry toward economic decline. District-level inequality statistically associated with greater downward mobility, suggesting higher income dispersion hardens economic boundaries rather than encouraging aspiration. Rural–Urban Divide By 2025, nearly 29% of rural households experienced downward mobility, significantly higher than urban areas, reflecting rural vulnerability to income shocks. Urban areas show relatively higher upward mobility, yet downward movement still rises gradually, implying uneven but not inclusive growth. Rural distress linked to informal sector fragility and agricultural stagnation; absence of coherent revival strategy amplified post-pandemic vulnerability. Caste-Based Mobility Patterns OBC and SC households witnessed sharp rise in downward mobility between 2014–19, with roughly 25% or more worse-off by 2025 relative to 2014. SC upward mobility remains muted, indicating constrained ascent pathways despite welfare rhetoric; reflects structural barriers in assets, education, and labour markets. Scheduled Tribes show comparatively lower downward mobility, possibly reflecting targeted interventions and region-specific development programmes. Findings reaffirm persistence of caste-based economic segmentation, consistent with long-standing evidence on unequal access to education and productive assets. Religious Group Patterns Downward mobility increased across all religious groups, more pronounced among Hindu and Muslim households over time. Muslim upward mobility weaker than Hindu households, suggesting discrimination affects ascent opportunities more than descent risk. Sikh and Christian households exhibited stronger upward mobility early in the decade, but momentum weakened post-2019. Structural Interpretation Higher district-level inequality correlates with greater downward mobility, implying that inequality reinforces immobility rather than stimulating competitive upward shifts. Education, urban location, and larger household size associated with better upward prospects, confirming human capital as key mobility determinant. Post-2019 turning point coincides with COVID-19 pandemic shock, exposing informal sector fragility and amplifying downward mobility, particularly rural. Constitutional and Governance Dimensions Article 38(2) mandates minimising inequalities in income and status; rising downward mobility questions effectiveness of redistributive policies. Directive Principles (Articles 39, 41, 43) emphasise livelihood security; mobility stagnation indicates implementation gaps in employment-intensive growth. Pandemic management and informal sector recovery strategy significantly shape distributional outcomes beyond headline GDP growth. Challenges  Downward mobility at 26.8% (2025) exceeds upward mobility (23.5%), indicating systemic vulnerability rather than transitional churn. Rural downward mobility nearing 29% highlights agrarian and informal sector distress despite welfare transfers. Roughly 25% or more OBC and SC households worse-off than 2014 position, signalling entrenched caste-linked economic fragility. District-level inequality statistically linked to downward shifts, implying that rising income dispersion worsens mobility prospects. Way Forward  Strengthen Employment-Intensive Sectors: Prioritise MSMEs and agriculture revival; MSMEs contribute ~30% to GDP and 45% to exports, yet remain credit-constrained post-pandemic. Human Capital Investment Surge: Increase public expenditure on health (~2% of GDP currently) and education (~3% of GDP) toward recommended 6% education benchmark to enhance upward mobility. District-Level Inequality Monitoring: Integrate mobility indicators alongside Gini in NITI Aayog dashboards to track dynamic vulnerability beyond poverty ratios. Anti-Discrimination Enforcement: Strengthen equal opportunity frameworks in credit, employment, and housing markets to address mobility constraints. Social Protection Deepening: Expand portability and adequacy of social security (MGNREGA, food security) to cushion income shocks, particularly in high downward-mobility districts. Prelims Pointers Income mobility differs from poverty rate and Gini coefficient by measuring movement across income ranks over time. Study period divided into 2014–19 and 2019–24, anchored around general elections. Data source: CMIE Consumer Pyramids Household Survey (2014–2025) using balanced household panel. The shift of critical minerals to India’s strategic centre Why in News?  Union Budget 2026 mainstreamed critical minerals as a core pillar of India’s industrial, energy and geopolitical strategy, shifting from policy formulation to execution phase. In August 2023, minerals like lithium, beryllium, tantalum and niobium were removed from the atomic minerals list, enabling private exploration and commercial participation. Launch of the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) in January 2025 with an outlay of ₹16,300 crore marked India’s first comprehensive execution-oriented mineral security framework. Relevance GS Paper III – Economy & Industry Mineral security and industrial policy (NCMM – ₹16,300 crore). 30 critical minerals identified; 1,200 exploration projects targeted. Link with EVs, semiconductors, renewables (500 GW non-fossil by 2030). GS Paper III – Environment & Energy Net Zero 2070 and clean-energy supply chains. Environmental risks in rare earth and monazite extraction. Practice Question Critical minerals have moved from a policy issue to a strategic imperative in India. Discuss their economic and geopolitical significance and examine challenges in building domestic processing capacity.(250 Words) Strategic Importance of Critical Minerals Critical minerals such as lithium, cobalt, rare earth elements, graphite, nickel are essential for EV batteries, solar modules, wind turbines, semiconductors and defence systems. Global processing dominance is highly concentrated; China controls up to 90% of processing capacity for several rare earths, creating supply-chain vulnerabilities. Mineral security directly linked to Net Zero 2070 commitments, energy transition targets (500 GW non-fossil capacity by 2030) and Atmanirbhar Bharat industrial strategy. Policy Evolution and Institutional Architecture India identified 30 critical minerals, rationalised royalty rates and opened exploration to junior miners, improving investment attractiveness. Exploration expenditure for nine critical minerals now eligible for tax deduction, lowering risk in early-stage mining investments. NCMM targets 1,200 exploration projects by FY2031, signalling scale and speed in domestic resource mapping. Removal of import duties on capital goods for mineral processing reduces capex burden for upcoming refineries. India’s Processing Capabilities: Current Status Indian industries already produce 99.9%+ purity copper, graphite, rare earth oxides, tin and titanium, indicating base-level technological capacity. However, production remains limited in scale and tailored to conventional uses; clean-tech applications require deeper refining and quality standard upgrades. Established sectors such as chemicals and pharmaceuticals provide transferable technical expertise for high-purity mineral processing expansion. Geopolitical and Strategic Dimension Weaponisation of rare earth magnets and battery supply chains (2025) exposed fragility of global clean-energy supply chains. Government announced rare earth corridors in coastal states and reduced import duties on monazite sands, leveraging India’s thorium-bearing beach sand reserves. Partnerships with Australia, EU, Japan, UK and US critical for technology transfer and supply-chain diversification under emerging China+1 strategies. Challenges  Processing Dependence Risk: China’s up to 90% control over mineral processing limits India’s ability to secure upstream supply without midstream capacity scaling. Exploration Time Lag: Mining projects globally take 10–15 years from discovery to production; NCMM’s 1,200 project target by FY2031 faces gestation constraints. Demand Uncertainty: Midstream processors lack assured domestic demand despite EV and renewable targets; backward integration delays weaken investor confidence. Technology Transfer Hesitation: Advanced processing nations remain cautious in sharing refining technologies, constraining domestic value-addition depth. Environmental Sensitivity: Rare earth and monazite extraction involves radioactive residues; compliance with environmental and Atomic Energy regulations raises operational complexity. Way Forward  Demand-Led Industrial Policy: Accelerate domestic EV, battery, solar and wind deployment; achieving 500 GW non-fossil capacity by 2030 will anchor assured mineral processing demand. AI-First Exploration Mandate: Integrate IndiaAI Mission, National Geospatial Policy, and Mission Anveshan with National Geoscience Data Repository to enhance predictive prospectivity modelling. Midstream Manufacturing Clusters: Operationalise rare earth corridors in coastal states with plug-and-play processing hubs linked to ports for export competitiveness. Strategic FTA Leverage: Use India–EU FTA (2026) and bilateral agreements to secure market access and incentivise foreign firms to establish refining facilities in India. Regulatory Certainty Framework: Establish stable royalty regime, environmental clearance timelines, and production-linked incentives like the ₹7,280 crore rare earth magnet scheme to attract global capital. Constitutional and Governance Lens Linked to Article 39(b): equitable distribution of material resources for common good; mineral wealth must balance strategic autonomy with environmental justice. Cooperative federalism crucial as minerals fall under State List (Entry 23) but regulation under Union powers via MMDR Act amendments. Prelims Pointers 30 critical minerals identified by India. NCMM launched January 2025, outlay ₹16,300 crore. 1,200 exploration projects targeted by FY2031. China controls up to 90% processing capacity for several rare earth minerals.  

Content SC Bans Class 8 Textbook: Contempt Powers, Academic Freedom and Constitutional Boundaries Under POCSO, Consent on Trial: Adolescent Autonomy, Statutory Rape and Reform Debate Have AI Products/LLMs Started to Disrupt the Software Services Industry? New GDP Data Set to Capture the Economy More Accurately Afghanistan–Pakistan Border Clashes: Retaliation, Durand Line Dispute and Regional Security Railway Reforms 2026: Rail Tech Policy, AI Integration and e-RCT Digitisation The Complex Social World of Macaques: Behavioural Ecology, Hierarchies and Adaptation Invasive Species, Greening–Browning Patterns and India’s Ecological Imbalance: Insights from AAD 2026 SC Bans Class 8 Textbook: Contempt Powers, Academic Freedom and Constitutional Boundaries Why in News? / Context The Supreme Court of India imposed a blanket and complete ban on an NCERT Class 8 Social Science textbook, ordering seizure of all physical and digital copies. A three-judge Bench headed by Chief Justice of India Surya Kant initiated suo motu contempt proceedings, describing the content as a “calculated” attempt to malign the judiciary. The Court held that selective references to “corruption in judiciary” could instil institutional distrust in “impressionable minds”, affecting long-term public confidence in constitutional governance. Relevance GS Paper II – Polity & Constitution Articles 129 & 215: Contempt powers of SC & HCs. Article 19(1)(a) vs 19(2): Free speech and reasonable restrictions. Basic Structure: Judicial independence (Kesavananda Bharati). Separation of powers and judicial overreach debate. GS Paper II – Governance Education in Concurrent List (Entry 25). NCERT curriculum autonomy vs constitutional limits. Institutional trust and constitutional morality. Mains Practice Question (15 Marks) The power to punish for contempt protects judicial authority, yet it must coexist with academic freedom and free speech. Examine the constitutional boundaries of contempt jurisdiction in light of recent developments. Constitutional and Legal Background Nature and Position of the Supreme Court Established under Article 124, the Supreme Court is the apex judicial authority, guardian of the Constitution, and final interpreter of fundamental rights and federal disputes. Under Article 141, law declared by the Supreme Court is binding on all courts; under Article 144, all authorities must act in aid of the Court. Judicial independence is part of the Basic Structure doctrine (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973), making protection of institutional credibility constitutionally significant. Contempt of Court: Constitutional Basis Article 129 declares the Supreme Court a Court of Record with power to punish for contempt of itself; High Courts derive similar power under Article 215. Contempt power protects administration of justice from obstruction, scandalisation, or interference, preserving authority of courts. The power is inherent and not merely statutory; Parliament regulates it through the Contempt of Courts Act, 1971. Contempt of Courts Act, 1971 – Key Provisions Civil Contempt: Wilful disobedience of court orders. Criminal Contempt: Publication that scandalises or lowers authority of court, prejudices judicial proceedings, or obstructs administration of justice. Section 13 (Amended 2006): Truth as a valid defence if in public interest and bona fide. The doctrine of “scandalising the court” remains controversial due to its potential chilling effect on criticism. Freedom of Speech and Reasonable Restrictions Article 19(1)(a) guarantees freedom of speech and expression, including academic discourse and institutional critique. Article 19(2) permits reasonable restrictions in interests of contempt of court, public order, defamation, and sovereignty. Judicial precedents (e.g., Brahma Prakash Sharma v. State of UP, 1953) distinguish fair criticism from malicious attack undermining institutional integrity. Education Governance and NCERT NCERT, established in 1961, functions as an autonomous body under the Ministry of Education, responsible for curriculum frameworks and textbook preparation. Education is in the Concurrent List (Entry 25, List III) after the 42nd Constitutional Amendment, allowing both Union and States to legislate. National Curriculum Frameworks periodically guide textbook content; however, editorial autonomy operates within constitutional limitations. Doctrinal and Institutional Dimensions Separation of Powers Judiciary safeguards constitutional supremacy; executive oversees education policy; legislature frames statutory framework. Judicial intervention in curriculum reflects assertion of institutional protection but raises concerns regarding potential overreach into academic domains. Judicial Accountability vs Judicial Independence Democratic theory permits scrutiny of institutions; however, institutional erosion through selective portrayal may weaken rule of law foundations. The judiciary has historically tolerated reasoned criticism but penalised malicious attempts undermining authority (Arundhati Roy Contempt Case, 2002). Democratic and Governance Implications Public trust in judiciary is crucial for enforcement of contracts, fundamental rights, and constitutional remedies under Article 32. A narrative of systemic judicial corruption, if uncontextualised, may weaken institutional legitimacy among youth. Simultaneously, excessive restriction of academic discourse risks narrowing space for informed civic education and constitutional literacy. Challenges Definitional Ambiguity: Scope of “scandalising the court” under criminal contempt remains broad, potentially discouraging academic examination of judicial accountability mechanisms. Editorial Oversight Gaps: Absence of structured constitutional vetting in NCERT textbook review processes exposes curriculum to ideological or institutional controversy. Digital Enforcement Practicality: Order to seize all digital copies faces technological challenges due to replication, downloads, and archival persistence. Balancing Article 19(1)(a) and 19(2): Determining proportionality of blanket ban requires strict scrutiny under evolving free speech jurisprudence. Institutional Sensitivity vs Transparency: Protecting judicial dignity must not suppress discussion of reforms like judicial appointments, impeachment provisions under Article 124(4), or anti-corruption safeguards. Way Forward Establish Constitutional Review Panel within NCERT including retired judges and constitutional scholars for vetting sensitive institutional topics. Codify Clear Pedagogical Standards distinguishing systemic institutional critique from individual allegations, ensuring balanced civic education. Refine Contempt Jurisprudence through larger Bench clarification on limits of “scandalising the court”, aligning with proportionality doctrine. Enhance Judicial Transparency by strengthening disclosure norms, performance data publication, and grievance redressal mechanisms to reduce mistrust. Promote Constitutional Literacy Programs integrating balanced modules on separation of powers, checks and balances, and accountability frameworks. Prelims Pointers Article 129 & 215: Contempt powers of Supreme Court and High Courts. Contempt of Courts Act, 1971: Defines civil and criminal contempt. Entry 25, Concurrent List: Education under joint legislative competence. Article 19(2): Reasonable restrictions including contempt of court. Under POCSO, Consent on Trial: Adolescent Autonomy, Statutory Rape and Reform Debate Why in News? / Context In January 2026, the Supreme Court of India urged the Union Government to consider introducing a “Romeo and Juliet” clause in the POCSO Act, 2012, exempting consensual close-in-age adolescent relationships. Courts increasingly confront cases where POCSO is invoked by families opposing inter-caste or inter-faith relationships, transforming consensual adolescent intimacy into statutory rape prosecutions. A 2022 Enfold study analysing 7,064 POCSO judgments (2016–2020) found 24.3% cases involved romantic relationships, with 80.2% complaints filed by parents, revealing systemic misuse concerns. Relevance GS Paper II – Governance & Social Justice POCSO Act, 2012 (strict liability; age <18). Section 19 mandatory reporting. Intersection with MTP Act, 2021. GS Paper II – Polity Article 21: Privacy & sexual autonomy (Puttaswamy, Navtej). Articles 14 & 15: Indirect discrimination concerns. Mains Practice Question (15 Marks) The POCSO Act’s strict age-of-consent framework aims to protect minors but has triggered concerns regarding adolescent autonomy and misuse. Critically examine the need for a “close-in-age” exception in India. Legal Background Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012 Enacted to provide a comprehensive, gender-neutral framework addressing child sexual abuse, pornography, and aggravated penetrative assault, ensuring child-friendly procedures and special courts. Defines a “child” as any person below 18 years, criminalising all sexual acts involving minors irrespective of consent, thereby creating strict liability statutory rape framework. Provides mandatory minimum sentence of seven years, extendable to life imprisonment for penetrative sexual assault, reflecting zero-tolerance legislative intent. Age of Consent in India For over 70 years, age of consent under IPC was 16 years; raised to 18 years in 2012 with POCSO enactment. The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013, post-Nirbhaya reforms, retained 18 years as uniform age of consent, consolidating statutory rape doctrine. Current framework treats consensual adolescent intimacy identically to exploitative abuse, creating doctrinal tension between protection and autonomy. Mandatory Reporting under Section 19 POCSO Section 19 mandates any person or institution with knowledge of a POCSO offence to report to police; failure punishable with up to six months’ imprisonment, one year for institutional heads. Doctors and counsellors legally obligated to report minor sexual activity, even if consensual, creating ethical conflict between confidentiality and legal compliance. In September 2022, Supreme Court relaxed disclosure norms, allowing doctors to protect minor’s identity if confidentiality requested, but FIR registration remains mandatory. Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, 1971 (Amended 2021) Permits termination up to 24 weeks in specified categories, including minors; however, reporting obligations under POCSO complicate confidential reproductive healthcare access. Conflict between reproductive rights jurisprudence (Article 21 – dignity and privacy) and mandatory criminal reporting regime creates systemic tension. Constitutional Dimensions Right to Privacy and Sexual Autonomy In Puttaswamy (2017), Supreme Court recognised privacy as fundamental right under Article 21, encompassing decisional autonomy in intimate matters. Navtej Johar (2018) affirmed sexual autonomy and dignity as constitutional values; yet minors remain excluded from consensual autonomy under statutory rape framework. Equality and Non-Discrimination Blanket criminalisation disproportionately affects inter-caste and inter-faith couples, implicating Articles 14 and 15 concerns of indirect discrimination. Evidence suggests male adolescents often prosecuted, while female minors categorised as victims, reinforcing gender stereotypes. Empirical Trends and Social Impact Romantic Relationship Cases Enfold’s 7,064-judgment analysis revealed 24.3% cases were romantic, with 80.2% parental complaints, indicating weaponisation to enforce social conformity. High acquittal rates reflect breakdown of prosecution when complainants retract statements, suggesting misuse rather than genuine abuse cases. Rural and Social Context POCSO often invoked in inter-caste relationships, reinforcing entrenched social hierarchies and honour-based familial resistance. Adolescents from marginalised backgrounds face greater vulnerability due to limited legal literacy and access to legal representation. Challenges Over-Criminalisation: Age of consent at 18 years criminalises consensual 16–17-year-old relationships, ignoring developmental psychology and normative adolescent behaviour. Mandatory Reporting Conflict: Section 19 reporting leads to FIR registration even in consensual cases, undermining confidentiality in reproductive healthcare. High Romantic Case Share (24.3%) burdens Special Courts, diverting resources from genuine abuse prosecution. Socio-Cultural Weaponisation: 80.2% parental complaints reflect caste and religious opposition rather than child protection imperatives. Ambiguity in Close-in-Age Proposal: Supreme Court’s “Romeo and Juliet” suggestion lacks definitional clarity, risking inconsistent interpretation and litigation overload. Way Forward Introduce Statutory Close-in-Age Exception: Exempt consensual relationships where age difference ≤3–5 years and both parties above 16, modelled on comparative jurisdictions. Amend Section 19 Reporting Norms: Create conditional reporting exemption for consensual adolescent cases certified by Child Welfare Committees. Judicial Screening Mechanism: Mandate preliminary inquiry by Special Courts to distinguish exploitative abuse from consensual relationships before framing charges. Strengthen Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE) aligned with National Education Policy to equip adolescents with consent literacy and risk awareness. Data Transparency Dashboard: Annual publication of POCSO case typology (romantic vs exploitative) to guide evidence-based legislative reform. Prelims Pointers POCSO Act, 2012: Child defined as below 18 years; mandatory reporting under Section 19. Age of consent raised to 18 in 2012, retained in Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013. MTP Act 1971 (Amended 2021): Termination permitted up to 24 weeks in specified cases. Have AI products/LLMs started to disrupt the software services industry? Why in News? AI services revenues projected at $10–12 billion in FY26, indicating rapid enterprise adoption. Simultaneous layoffs, restructuring, and automation, especially in entry-level IT and BPO roles. Debate: Disruption vs Transformation in India’s software services model. Relevance GS Paper III – Economy IT–BPM sector (~$245–250 bn; 5.4+ million jobs). Labour arbitrage → intelligence arbitrage shift. Employment elasticity decline. GS Paper III – Science & Technology AI integration in SDLC and BPO automation. Sovereign LLM vs AI services strategy. Mains Practice Question (15 Marks) AI-led automation is transforming India’s software services industry from a labour-arbitrage to an intelligence-arbitrage model. Analyse its implications for employment, regulation, and long-term competitiveness. Static Background Structure of India’s IT–BPM Sector India’s IT–BPM industry valued at ~$245–250 billion (FY23–24, NASSCOM estimates). Employs 5.4+ million people directly, with 60%+ workforce under 30 years. Built historically on labour arbitrage model: time-and-material billing, pyramid workforce structure. Two Broad Segments IT Services: Application development, maintenance, cloud, enterprise integration. BPM/BPO/KPO: Repetitive, process-driven, voice/non-voice services. Nature of AI Intervention 1. From Labour Arbitrage to Intelligence Arbitrage Traditional model: growth = increase in headcount. AI-enabled model: growth without proportional hiring → higher revenue per employee. Shift from pyramid model → diamond structure → outcome-based squads. 2. Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC) Transformation AI tools generate code, test cases, documentation, user stories. Reduction in build-time: squads of 8–10 members → 3–5 members in some use-cases. Emergence of context engineering and domain-specialised roles. Regulated sectors (e.g., banking) require auditability, traceability, and compliance layers over AI outputs. 3. BPO/KPO Vulnerability Repetitive, rule-based tasks susceptible to agentic AI automation. Call centres employing 4,000–5,000 staff may need 10–15 supervisory validators for automated workflows. Entry-level voice/non-voice roles most exposed. Constitutional / Legal Dimensions Labour Protection Article 21 – Right to livelihood (Olga Tellis case). India lacks structured unemployment insurance for formal IT workforce. Industrial Disputes Act protections limited for white-collar IT employees (often outside “workman” definition). Algorithmic Governance Increasing use of AI in performance tracking and workforce allocation. Raises concerns under: Right to Privacy (Puttaswamy, 2017) Emerging debates on AI transparency and accountability under Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023. Economic Dimensions 1. Productivity vs Employment AI increases output per engineer, but reduces marginal demand for entry-level hiring. India’s demographic dividend: 65% population below 35 years – job elasticity critical. 2. Pricing Model Shift Movement from time-and-material billing → squad-based → outcome-based pricing. Clients prioritise predictability, quality, and upfront cost clarity. Enhances margins but reduces labour intensity. 3. Global Value Chain Position Foundational LLMs largely built in U.S. and China, with massive compute and capital backing. India strong in enterprise integration, systems engineering, scaling, execution discipline. Strategic choice: Sovereign LLM development vs AI services dominance. Social / Ethical Dimensions 1. Just Transition Concerns Sudden layoffs affect financial planning, education, mental health stability. No structured wage-loss insurance unlike OECD nations. 2. Skilling Gaps Skill India largely non-credit, non-certifiable for high-end AI competencies. Gap between prompt engineering exposure and production-grade domain AI capability. 3. Algorithmic Decision-Making Performance metrics increasingly AI-driven → transparency deficits. Risk of opaque retrenchment decisions labelled as “AI restructuring”. Environmental Dimension AI and Data Centres AI expansion → rapid data centre growth. Data centres: High electricity consumption Significant water usage for cooling Limited direct employment multiplier compared to traditional IT parks. Raises sustainability concerns aligned with India’s Net Zero 2070 commitment. Challenges  Entry-Level Displacement Risk: BPO/KPO automation can shrink workforce from thousands to double-digit supervisory teams. Employment Elasticity Decline: Revenue growth decoupled from headcount growth under intelligence arbitrage model. Insufficient Domestic Foundational AI Investment: Compared to U.S./China scale capital and compute infrastructure. Lack of Social Security Net: No structured unemployment benefits for high-skill white-collar layoffs. Regulatory Vacuum on Algorithmic Management: No explicit AI workplace transparency law; DPDP Act focuses on data, not employment algorithms. Way Forward  National AI Workforce Transition Framework: Mandate large tech firms to publish annual AI-impact workforce disclosures. Portable Skill Credit System: Convert Skill India into credit-based, industry-validated certification platform aligned with NCrF (National Credit Framework). Unemployment Insurance for Formal Sector: Expand ESIC or create contributory wage-loss insurance for IT professionals for 6–9 months. Green AI Standards: Mandate energy efficiency norms for data centres under Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE). Strategic AI Dual Model: Invest in sovereign LLMs via IndiaAI Mission. Simultaneously strengthen India’s global dominance in AI services integration and enterprise scaling. New GDP data set to capture economy more accurately Why in News? The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) is releasing a new series of national accounts, revising the base year from 2011–12 to 2022–23. The revision incorporates methodological upgrades and new data sources, including expanded use of GST data, ASUSE, and financial sector datasets. Objective: Improve accuracy of GDP and Gross Value Added (GVA) estimates, reduce extrapolation bias, and better capture structural shifts in the economy. Relevance GS Paper III – Economy GDP vs GVA concepts. Base year revision (2011–12 → 2022–23). GST integration in national accounts. Impact on fiscal deficit and debt ratios. GS Paper II – Governance Role of MoSPI & NSO. Statistical credibility and transparency. Mains Practice Question (15 Marks) Base year revisions are essential for accurate national income estimation but often generate controversy. Discuss the significance and challenges of India’s shift to the 2022–23 GDP base year. National Income Accounting in India Constitutional and Institutional Framework National income statistics compiled under Collection of Statistics Act, 2008. MoSPI through the National Statistical Office (NSO) prepares GDP, GVA, and related macroeconomic aggregates. Base year revision undertaken periodically to reflect structural transformation; previous base year: 2011–12 (revised in 2015). GDP and GVA Concepts GDP (Gross Domestic Product): Market value of final goods and services produced within domestic territory. GVA (Gross Value Added): Output minus intermediate consumption; sectoral performance measured primarily through GVA. GDP at market prices = GVA + product taxes – subsidies. Why Base Year Revision Matters ? Ensures updated price structure, production patterns, consumption weights. Improves sectoral comparability and inter-temporal analysis. Aligns with UN System of National Accounts (SNA 2008) standards. Key Methodological Changes in New Series 1. Base Year Shift: 2011–12 → 2022–23 Reflects post-pandemic structural changes, digitalisation, formalisation trends, and GST-led tax transparency. Reduces distortions caused by outdated price weights and sector composition. 2. Enhanced Use of GST Data GST data now used to better estimate value added of private corporations, replacing partial extrapolations. Helps capture activity-wise revenue shares, reducing sectoral misallocation in GVA estimation. Enables improved regional output measurement through transaction-level tax data. 3. Improved Corporate Sector Estimation Greater reliance on Annual Survey of Unincorporated Sector Enterprises (ASUSE) and administrative datasets. Replacement of proxy-based estimates for Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) with actual financial filings. Improves capture of private final consumption expenditure and service-sector output. 4. Household Sector Improvements Household sector output earlier estimated through extrapolation; new series uses enhanced Household Consumer Expenditure Surveys. Direct estimation reduces imputation bias in informal and self-employment sectors. 5. Financial Sector Refinement Utilisation of Statistical Tables Relating to Banks in India (STRBI) from RBI. Incorporates both public and private bank data comprehensively. Better measurement of financial intermediation services indirectly measured (FISIM). Economic Significance 1. Formalisation Capture GST integration reflects impact of post-2017 tax reform on formalisation and compliance expansion. Enhances measurement of digital transactions and enterprise-level reporting. 2. Policy Precision More accurate GVA data improves fiscal deficit calculations, debt-to-GDP ratios, and sectoral productivity analysis. Affects FRBM compliance metrics and international investor perception. 3. Sectoral Rebalancing Improved housing services measurement includes value of government-provided housing benefits. Strengthens public sector output accounting. Challenges Comparability Break: Base year revision complicates inter-temporal comparisons with 2011–12 series. Data Quality Dependence: Heavy reliance on GST assumes high compliance; informal sector leakages may persist. Extrapolation Risks Reduced but Not Eliminated: Household sector and small enterprises still partly estimated indirectly. Revision Volatility: Frequent back-series adjustments may create policy uncertainty and credibility debates. State-Level Disparities: Regional GST reporting variations may distort sub-national GDP estimates. Way Forward Transparent Back-Series Publication: Release consistent recalculated historical GDP to preserve analytical continuity. Strengthen Informal Sector Surveys: Expand ASUSE frequency and coverage to capture gig and platform economy growth. Integrate Digital Payment Data: Use UPI and digital transaction datasets for improved services-sector estimation. Independent Statistical Audit Mechanism: Enhance credibility through peer review by National Statistical Commission. Capacity Building at State Level: Harmonise data reporting standards to improve regional GSDP accuracy. Prelims Pointers Base year revised to 2022–23 from 2011–12. GDP = GVA + taxes – subsidies. ASUSE replaces earlier proxy-based unincorporated sector estimation. GST data now integrated into corporate GVA estimation. Afghanistan–Pakistan Border Clashes: Retaliation, Durand Line Dispute and Regional Security Why in News? The Taliban administration in Afghanistan launched retaliatory attacks on Pakistani border posts following alleged Pakistani airstrikes. Clashes occurred along the 2,600 km Durand Line, escalating tensions after cross-border strikes targeting alleged militant camps. Both sides accused each other of “unprovoked fire,” indicating deterioration in bilateral security relations post-2021 Taliban takeover. Relevance GS Paper II – International Relations Durand Line dispute (1893). Article 51 (self-defence) under UN Charter. Taliban governance post-2021. GS Paper III – Security TTP factor and cross-border militancy. Regional instability implications for India. Mains Practice Question (15 Marks) Recurring clashes along the Durand Line reflect unresolved historical disputes and evolving security threats. Analyse the legal and geopolitical dimensions of Afghanistan–Pakistan border tensions. Static Background 1. The Durand Line Dispute The Durand Line (1893) was drawn between British India and Afghanistan by Sir Mortimer Durand. Length: ~2,640 km, dividing Pashtun tribal areas. Pakistan recognises it as international border; Afghanistan has historically refused formal recognition. Dispute fuels cross-border insurgency and mistrust. 2. Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) Factor TTP is a Pakistan-based militant group aiming to overthrow the Pakistani state. Islamabad accuses Kabul of providing safe havens to TTP fighters post-2021. Taliban deny formal support but have struggled to restrain transnational militancy. 3. Taliban Government (Post-2021) Taliban regained control of Afghanistan in August 2021 after U.S. withdrawal. No formal international recognition by most countries. Afghanistan faces economic crisis, humanitarian dependency, and security fragmentation. Geopolitical Context 1. Pakistan’s Security Calculus Pakistan conducted alleged airstrikes in Afghan territory targeting militant camps. Islamabad frames action as safeguarding territorial integrity and internal security. Escalation reflects breakdown of earlier Pakistan–Taliban tactical alignment. 2. Afghanistan’s Strategic Signalling Taliban’s retaliatory strikes signal assertion of sovereignty. Domestic legitimacy imperative: projecting strength against perceived external aggression. Risk of localised clashes escalating into broader confrontation. International Law Perspective Sovereignty and Non-Intervention Under UN Charter Article 2(4), states must refrain from use of force against territorial integrity of another state. Cross-border strikes justified by Pakistan under self-defence doctrine (Article 51) against non-state actors. Legal controversy: whether inability/unwillingness doctrine applies. Counter-Terrorism Law States obligated to prevent territory being used for terrorist activities (UNSC Resolution 1373). Failure to control TTP presence complicates Taliban’s international legitimacy claims. Regional Security Implications 1. Escalation Risk Armed exchanges along mountainous terrain increase risk of miscalculation. Historical precedent: border clashes in October 2023 and 2024 ceasefire breakdowns. 2. Refugee and Humanitarian Impact Afghanistan already hosts severe humanitarian crisis; border tensions disrupt trade and aid corridors. Pakistan hosts millions of Afghan refugees; tensions may worsen deportation policies. 3. India’s Strategic Stakes India maintains limited engagement with Taliban regime while monitoring security implications. Instability could affect connectivity projects in Central Asia and regional counter-terror strategy. Economic and Connectivity Angle Pakistan–Afghanistan trade critical for landlocked Afghan economy. Border closures disrupt transit routes linked to Central Asia–South Asia connectivity frameworks. Potential spillover into CPEC security dynamics. Challenges  Unresolved Border Legitimacy: Durand Line remains contested, preventing stable demarcation and border management. Non-State Actor Sanctuaries: TTP presence complicates sovereignty claims and fuels retaliatory doctrine justification. Weak Institutional Control in Afghanistan: Taliban governance lacks unified control over all armed factions. Escalatory Signalling: Airstrikes and retaliatory artillery increase probability of accidental escalation. Humanitarian Spillover: Trade disruptions and refugee tensions exacerbate fragile Afghan economy. Way Forward Revive Border Coordination Mechanism: Institutionalise joint verification and ceasefire monitoring cells. Counter-Terror Cooperation Framework: Structured intelligence-sharing mechanism targeting TTP without violating sovereignty. Durand Line Confidence-Building Measures: Local ceasefire committees involving tribal elders to reduce flashpoints. Regional Mediation Support: Engage SCO or OIC platforms to facilitate dialogue. Humanitarian Safeguards: Ensure border trade and aid corridors insulated from military escalation. Prelims Notes Durand Line (1893) divides Pakistan and Afghanistan (~2,640 km). UN Charter Article 51 permits self-defence against armed attack. TTP distinct from Afghan Taliban; operates primarily against Pakistan. Afghanistan not formally recognised by most UN member states post-2021. Railway Reforms 2026: Rail Tech Policy, AI Integration and e-RCT Digitisation Why in News? The Ministry of Railways launched a Rail Tech Policy and the Rail Tech Portal to enable smoother start-up access and structured funding support. Announced reforms under the flagship “52 Reforms in 52 Weeks” initiative aim to accelerate innovation adoption and scale-up. The Railway Claims Tribunal (RCT) is being digitised through e-RCT, enabling electronic filing and faster disposal of accident compensation claims. Relevance GS Paper III – Infrastructure & S&T AI integration in rail safety (EIDS, fire detection). Innovation funding model (50% support). GS Paper II – Governance Railway Claims Tribunal Act, 1987. Digitisation and access to justice (Article 21, 39A). Mains Practice Question (15 Marks) Digital transformation and AI integration in Indian Railways promise efficiency gains but raise governance challenges. Critically examine the reform trajectory under the Rail Tech Policy. Static Background Indian Railways: Institutional Context Indian Railways is one of the world’s largest rail networks, spanning ~68,000 km route length, carrying over 8 billion passengers annually (pre-pandemic levels). Operates under the Ministry of Railways, with safety governed by statutory and regulatory frameworks including the Railways Act, 1989. Innovation adoption historically slow due to procurement rigidity and bureaucratic compliance layers. Railway Claims Tribunal (RCT) Established under the Railway Claims Tribunal Act, 1987. Adjudicates compensation claims for death, injury, and loss of goods in railway accidents. Previously required physical filing and in-person hearings, causing delays and access barriers. Key Reform Components 1. Rail Tech Policy and Portal Designed to simplify start-up engagement and remove entry barriers for technology deployment in Railways. Enables systematic evaluation, pilot testing, and scaling of innovative solutions. Government to fund 50% of start-up solution development cost, reducing financial risk. Scale-up grant enhanced by over three times, with prototype funding cap doubled. 2. AI and Technology Integration Areas Railways exploring: AI-based Elephant Intrusion Detection System (EIDS) to prevent wildlife collisions. AI-based fire detection in coaches for passenger safety. Drone-based broken rail detection systems improving preventive maintenance. Rail-stress monitoring systems for structural resilience. Sensor-based load calculation devices on parcel vans. AI-based coach cleaning monitoring systems. Obstruction detection in foggy environments enhancing safety in northern corridors. Solar panels on coaches to improve energy efficiency. AI-based pension and dispute resolution systems for administrative efficiency. 3. e-Railway Claims Tribunal (e-RCT) Complete digitisation of claim filing, documentation, and case tracking. Allows litigants to file claims from any location, reducing travel costs and procedural friction. Accelerates adjudication process in compensation cases involving deaths and injuries. Governance and Administrative Dimensions Ease of Doing Innovation Rail Tech Policy aligns with Startup India (2016) and Digital India initiatives. Incorporates best practices from defence and telecom innovation procurement frameworks. Shift from closed procurement to open innovation ecosystem model. Access to Justice e-RCT enhances compliance with Article 21 (Right to Life) by enabling faster compensation delivery. Supports Article 39A (Equal Justice and Free Legal Aid) by lowering procedural barriers. Economic and Industrial Impact Encourages domestic innovation ecosystem in rail safety and smart mobility. Strengthens Make in India by localising rail-tech solutions. Enhances operational efficiency, potentially lowering accident-related economic losses. Promotes green transition via solar and energy optimisation systems. Environmental and Sustainability Dimension AI-enabled elephant detection reduces human-wildlife conflict in forest corridors. Solar integration aligns with India’s Net Zero 2070 commitment. Predictive maintenance reduces derailments and associated environmental damage. Challenges Procurement Integration Risk: Pilot-to-scale transition often delayed due to legacy tendering rules. Data Security and AI Governance: Increased digitisation raises cybersecurity vulnerabilities. Funding Adequacy: 50% cost-sharing may still be insufficient for capital-intensive deep-tech solutions. Digital Divide in e-RCT: Rural litigants may face barriers in digital filing despite reform intent. Inter-Departmental Coordination: Scaling AI systems requires synchronisation across zonal railways. Way Forward Single Innovation Clearance Cell within Railways to fast-track pilot approvals within fixed timelines. Dedicated Rail Innovation Fund with predictable multi-year budget allocations. Cybersecurity Protocol Framework aligned with CERT-In guidelines for AI-enabled infrastructure. Hybrid Filing Model for e-RCT combining digital and assisted facilitation centres. Performance-Based Innovation Contracts linking payments to safety and efficiency metrics. Prelims Notes Railway Claims Tribunal Act, 1987 established RCT. Rail Tech Policy provides 50% funding support for start-up solutions. e-RCT allows complete digital filing and tracking of claims. Elephant Intrusion Detection System (EIDS) uses AI for wildlife protection. The Complex Social World of Macaques: Behavioural Ecology, Hierarchies and Adaptation Why in News? A report on a Japanese macaque named “Punch”, isolated early and reintroduced later, highlights how early maternal deprivation affects primate behaviour and social integration. Observations raise broader questions on social hierarchies, dominance systems, stress, and adaptation in macaque societies. The case provides insights relevant to wildlife management, zoo ethics, and primate behavioural research. Relevance GS Paper III – Environment & Biodiversity Behavioural ecology and conservation. Human–wildlife conflict (urban macaques). Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. GS Paper I – Society (Comparative Insight) Hierarchies, social learning, group behaviour (sociological parallels). Mains Practice Question (15 Marks) Behavioural ecology insights are essential for effective wildlife conservation. Discuss with reference to primate social structures and habitat fragmentation. Macaques in India and Asia Taxonomy and Distribution Macaques belong to genus Macaca, family Cercopithecidae. India hosts species such as: Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) Assam macaque (Macaca assamensis) Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) (endangered, Western Ghats). Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) native to Japan; known as “snow monkey”. Conservation Status Lion-tailed macaque: Endangered (IUCN). Rhesus macaque: Least Concern, but involved in urban human-wildlife conflict. Protected under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (India) — different schedules for species. Social Structure of Macaques 1. Matrilineal Hierarchy Japanese macaques exhibit female philopatry (females remain in natal group). Rank of daughters often correlates with mother’s dominance status. Hierarchy maintained through grooming, alliances, and ritualised aggression. 2. Dominance and Aggression Higher-ranked individuals display aggression toward lower-ranked members. Aggression may serve: Reinforcement of rank order Resource competition (food, mates) Social discipline mechanism Not random violence but structured behavioural pattern. 3. Role of Maternal Bonding Classic studies by Harry Harlow (1950s) showed maternal deprivation in rhesus macaques leads to: Social withdrawal Stress behaviours Impaired peer interaction Early-life trauma affects integration into hierarchical systems. Behavioural Ecology Dimensions 1. Social Learning Macaques exhibit cultural transmission (e.g., potato-washing behaviour in Japanese macaques). Juveniles learn grooming, foraging, and rank navigation through maternal and peer modelling. 2. Group Cohesion and Survival Primates rely on social groups for: Predator avoidance Resource defence Emotional regulation Unlike herd animals, primates operate under complex social rules and coalition-building. Psychological and Evolutionary Insights Early stress influences cortisol levels and long-term behavioural responses. Hierarchical societies reduce constant conflict by stabilising rank expectations. Integration failure may increase intra-group competition and stress dynamics. Urban and Human Interface Rhesus macaques in Indian cities show behavioural adaptation to anthropogenic food sources. Human provisioning alters dominance patterns and increases conflict. Wildlife management must account for social structure, not just population control. Environmental and Conservation Context Habitat fragmentation disrupts troop cohesion and dispersal routes. Lion-tailed macaques face isolation due to Western Ghats deforestation. Climate change alters food availability, impacting social competition intensity. Challenges Maternal Separation Stress: Early deprivation affects long-term social stability and integration success. Habitat Fragmentation: Breaks matrilineal continuity and dispersal corridors. Urban Conflict: Food provisioning skews natural hierarchy and increases aggression. Captive Reintroduction Risks: Social acceptance of isolated individuals uncertain in structured hierarchies. Tourism Pressure: Behavioural alteration in snow monkeys and temple macaques due to human interaction. Way Forward Behaviour-Informed Wildlife Management: Integrate primate social ecology into relocation and rehabilitation policies. Habitat Corridor Protection: Strengthen Western Ghats connectivity for lion-tailed macaques. Regulate Wildlife Tourism: Limit feeding and close-contact photography. Urban Conflict Mitigation Plans: Secure waste management and awareness campaigns. Longitudinal Behavioural Monitoring: Support primate research institutions to track stress and hierarchy changes. Prelims Notes Harry Harlow experiments (1950s): Maternal deprivation in rhesus macaques. Lion-tailed macaque endemic to Western Ghats. Macaques exhibit female philopatry and matrilineal dominance hierarchies. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 governs primate protection in India. Invasive Species, Greening–Browning Patterns and India’s Ecological Imbalance: Insights from AAD 2026 Why in News? At the Anil Agarwal Dialogue (AAD) 2026, Prof. Jagdish Krishnaswamy highlighted that invasive alien species and hydrological shifts are reshaping India’s ecological balance. Presentation of the Greening and Browning Atlas of India (1982–2022; 2000–2022) reveals uneven vegetation trends not fully captured by conventional climate models. Findings connect canal irrigation, rainfall shifts in northwest India, Western Ghats forest dynamics, and water imbalances to broader Anthropocene transformations. Relevance GS Paper III – Environment Invasive Alien Species (CBD). NDVI-based greening vs ecological health. Blue water vs green water. Western Ghats hydrological feedback loops. GS Paper III – Climate Change Land-use feedbacks in Anthropocene. Irrigation-induced micro-climate shifts (Thar Desert). Mains Practice Question (15 Marks) Satellite-based “greening” trends do not necessarily reflect ecological restoration. Examine how invasive species and hydrological shifts are reshaping India’s ecological balance. Static Background 1. Invasive Alien Species (IAS) Defined under Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) as non-native species whose introduction threatens ecosystems, habitats, or species. Examples in India: Lantana camara (Western Ghats) Prosopis juliflora (Thar Desert) Parthenium hysterophorus Impacts include: Altered soil biogeochemistry Reduced native biodiversity Changed fire regimes and hydrological cycles 2. Greening and Browning Concepts Greening: Increase in vegetation density (NDVI-based satellite indicators). Drivers: afforestation, irrigation expansion, shrub encroachment, invasive species spread. Browning: Vegetation decline due to drought, land-use change, mining, urbanisation, or climate stress. Important: Greening does not always imply ecological health; it may signal invasive proliferation. 3. Western Ghats Ecological Significance Recognised as UNESCO World Heritage Site and biodiversity hotspot. Major source of peninsular rivers: Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri. Forests regulate rainfall through evapotranspiration, influencing eastern coastal rainfall regimes. Degradation affects regional monsoon dynamics and downstream water security. 4. Thar Desert and Indira Gandhi Canal Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan Canal Project) diverts Sutlej–Beas waters to arid northwest India. Canal irrigation increases soil moisture and local evapotranspiration. Evidence suggests increasing rainfall in parts of Rajasthan, altering Thar’s ecological character. Risk: salinisation, waterlogging, and invasive shrub expansion (e.g., Prosopis). Hydrological Dimensions 1. Blue Water vs Green Water Blue Water: Surface and groundwater used for drinking, irrigation, industry. Green Water: Soil moisture from rainfall used by vegetation via evapotranspiration. Agriculture consumes majority of India’s blue water (~80–85%). Climate variability makes green water management crucial for resilience. 2. Wetting and Drying Atlas Surface Water Trends dataset maps changes in lakes, ponds, wetlands. Reveals paradox: simultaneous intensifying droughts and extreme rainfall events. Indicates imbalance rather than uniform scarcity. Ecological and Biogeochemical Impacts Invasive species alter carbon sequestration patterns and soil nutrient cycles. Changes in vegetation affect albedo, evapotranspiration, and atmospheric moisture recycling. Delta stability depends on sediment transport; rivers reaching sea are ecologically vital. Anthropocene Context Anthropocene marked by dominant human alteration of land, water, and climate systems. India’s ecological shifts reflect irrigation expansion, urbanisation, mining, and altered rainfall regimes. Climate models often underrepresent land-use feedbacks and invasive-driven vegetation changes. Environmental Governance Framework Biological Diversity Act, 2002 governs biodiversity conservation. India party to CBD and supports Global Biodiversity Framework targets. National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) includes missions on sustainable agriculture and water. Challenges Invasive-Driven False Greening: Satellite greening may mask biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. Hydrological Imbalance: Canal-induced moisture shifts may distort local climate and desert ecology. Western Ghats Degradation: Structural forest change affects rainfall redistribution to eastern India. Delta Vulnerability: Reduced sediment flow increases coastal erosion and climate risk. Policy Fragmentation: Water, land, and biodiversity policies often operate in silos, ignoring systemic feedback loops. Way Forward  National Invasive Species Strategy with real-time satellite monitoring integrated into forest management. Green Water Budgeting at district level to complement blue water accounting. Landscape-Level Planning in Western Ghats to preserve evapotranspiration-linked rainfall systems. Sediment-Sensitive River Management to protect deltas and coastal resilience. Integrated Eco-Hydrological Modelling combining land-use, climate, and biodiversity datasets for policy decisions. Prelims Notes Evapotranspiration influences regional rainfall redistribution. Prosopis juliflora invasive in Thar Desert. Western Ghats recognised as UNESCO World Heritage Site. Blue water vs green water distinction central to hydrological management.