Content DIGITIZATION OF COURTS (e-Courts Mission Mode Project) PROJECTS UNDER PMKSY, PMFME & PLISFPI DIGITIZATION OF COURTS (e-Courts Mission Mode Project) Basics & Context Meaning and Rationale Digitization of courts means systematic use of ICT tools for filing, records, hearings, and payments, targeting faster disposal, transparency, cost reduction, and access to justice, reducing dependence on paper-based systems. Anchored in Digital India and e-Governance, it addresses pendency, delays, and procedural inefficiencies, aligning justice delivery with the constitutional promise of timely and affordable justice under Article 21. Evolution of e-Courts Project Started 2007 under NeGP; Phase I computerised district courts, Phase II expanded services; Phase III (2023–27) aims at paperless, interoperable, end-to-end digital judiciary. Phase III outlay: ₹7,210 crore; focus on legacy digitisation, AI tools, cloud storage, universal e-filing, virtual hearings, and integration with police–prison–forensics systems. Why in News ? Major scale-up: 637.85 crore pages digitised, 3.93 crore VC hearings, 1.03 crore e-filed cases, AI-enabled Digital Courts 2.1, and stronger NJDG dashboards for pendency management. Relevance GS II – Polity & Governance Judicial reforms & pendency reduction Access to justice: Art. 21, 39A E-Governance & transparency (NJDG, e-filing) Cooperative federalism in court infrastructure Practice Question “Digitization of courts is not merely a technological reform but a structural judicial reform.” Examine in the context of pendency and access to justice in India.(250 Words) Constitutional / Legal Dimension Article 21 (speedy trial) jurisprudence supports digital courts reducing delays via automated scheduling, digital records, and e-service of summons, improving procedural efficiency. Article 39A (legal aid) strengthened through e-Seva Kendras and mobile apps, enabling litigants to access case status, orders, and services without repeated physical court visits. Supreme Court e-Committee ensures technology adoption respects due process, open courts, privacy safeguards, and evidentiary reliability under modern evidence laws. Governance / Administrative High Courts implement, NIC develops, BSNL connects, Centre funds; reflects cooperative federalism, but creates capacity and coordination gaps across states and court complexes. CIS 4.0 universalisation standardises case data nationwide, enabling interoperability with NJDG, e-filing, ICJS, supporting data-driven judicial administration and policy decisions. 2,283 district and 48 High Court e-Seva Kendras provide assisted access for litigants, bridging digital divide and ensuring technology does not exclude vulnerable populations. Economic Dimension E-payments processed ₹1,234 crore court fees and ₹63 crore fines, improving transparency, audit trails, and revenue tracking, reducing leakages in court fee systems. 29 virtual courts handled 9.81 crore challans, disposed 8.74 crore, realising ₹973.32 crore, showing cost-effective adjudication of petty offences and docket decongestion. Paperless systems reduce storage, stationery, logistics costs, and cut litigant travel and opportunity costs, improving overall economic efficiency of justice delivery. Social / Ethical Video conferencing and e-services enhance inclusion for women, elderly, disabled, and remote litigants, reducing intimidation and logistical burdens in sensitive or family-related disputes. NJDG public dashboards increase transparency, enabling citizens and researchers to track pendency and disposal trends, strengthening accountability and public trust. Ethical issues include digital exclusion, algorithmic bias in AI tools, and privacy risks, requiring strong safeguards and human oversight. Technology / Security Digital Courts 2.1 uses AI-based translation and transcription, addressing India’s linguistic diversity and improving judicial productivity in multilingual proceedings. NSTEP processed 6.21 crore e-processes, with 1.61 crore successfully delivered, using GPS-enabled service, reducing delays and manipulation in summons delivery. Hosted on NIC cloud, protected by role-based access and SOC training; yet judiciary remains vulnerable to ransomware and data breaches. Data & Evidence 637.85 crore pages digitised; states like Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh contribute large shares, showing progress but also inter-state disparities. 3,240 court complexes and 1,272 jails VC-enabled; 3.93 crore hearings conducted, reducing prisoner transit and security burdens. 35 lakh daily portal hits, 3.5 crore app downloads, and crores of SMS/email alerts indicate strong citizen adoption of digital judicial services. Challenges   Digital divide and poor connectivity in rural areas risk creating unequal access to digital justice, undermining equity. Resistance from bar, limited training, and legacy mindsets slow optimal utilisation of digital platforms. Lack of judiciary-specific data governance framework creates ambiguity on data retention, anonymisation, and reuse. Pendency driven by judge vacancies, investigation delays, forensic backlogs, beyond mere digitisation. Way Forward Institutionalise hybrid courts with SOPs limiting adjournments and standardising virtual hearings for procedural matters. Develop judicial data protection protocols aligned with national data laws, including regular cyber audits and AI oversight. Invest in last-mile connectivity, multilingual interfaces, and continuous capacity-building for judges and staff. Use NJDG analytics for scientific case allocation and targeted reforms in high-pendency districts. PROJECTS UNDER PMKSY, PMFME & PLISFPI Basics & Context Meaning & Policy Rationale Food processing sector links agriculture with industry, reducing post-harvest losses (5–15% range in perishables), raising farmer incomes, enabling value addition, exports, and nutrition security, aligning with Doubling Farmers’ Income vision. MoFPI operationalises sectoral growth via PMKSY, PMFME, PLISFPI, targeting infrastructure gaps, micro-enterprise formalisation, and global-scale manufacturing, supporting Make in India, Atmanirbhar Bharat, and supply-chain modernisation. Why in News ? Government reported scale: 1,607 PMKSY projects, 1.72 lakh PMFME micro-units, 274 PLISFPI locations, showing accelerated investment, subsidy support, and infrastructure creation across states for food processing expansion. Relevance GS III  – Economy & Agriculture Value addition & farmer income Agro-processing, exports, MSMEs Supply chains & wastage reduction GS II – Governance Scheme design & implementation gaps Cooperative federalism, ODOP Practice Question How does the food processing sector contribute to farmer income, employment, and value addition in Indian agriculture?(150 Words) Scheme Architecture    PMKSY (Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana) Central Sector Scheme, ₹6,520 crore outlay (15th FC cycle), supports mega food parks, cold chains, agro-processing clusters, preservation infrastructure, aiming integrated farm-to-market value chains and reduction of wastage. 1,607 approved projects, 1,196 operational, 411 ongoing; ongoing projects involve ₹10,983 crore cost with ₹3,005 crore grants, reflecting substantial public leverage over private agri-processing investments. PMFME (PM Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises) Centrally Sponsored Scheme, ₹10,000 crore outlay till 2025-26, provides credit-linked subsidy, training, branding, and ODOP support, formalising unorganised micro food units and enhancing rural entrepreneurship. 1,72,707 micro-enterprises supported, ₹5,009 crore subsidies approved, with major uptake in Bihar, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, indicating strong rural enterprise response and decentralised food processing growth. PLISFPI (PLI for Food Processing Industry) ₹10,900 crore outlay (2021–27), incentivises large investments, branding abroad, and global champions, targeting segments like ready-to-eat foods, marine products, processed fruits and vegetables. 274 approved locations, ₹7,462 crore committed investments, concentrated in Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, signalling industry clustering and scale-driven competitiveness in processed food exports. Constitutional / Legal Dimension Advances Article 39(b) DPSP by promoting equitable distribution of material resources through value addition in agriculture and rural industries, indirectly strengthening livelihood security for farmers and agro-workers. Supports cooperative federalism, as states provide land, approvals, and facilitation while Centre offers financial incentives, creating shared responsibility model in agro-industrial development. Governance / Administrative Dashboard monitoring, site inspections, promoter reviews, and bank coordination ensure implementation oversight; penal clauses for delays create accountability mechanisms in public-funded private infrastructure projects. Delays mainly due to statutory clearances from pollution boards, utilities, and planning authorities, highlighting regulatory bottlenecks in India’s infrastructure and agro-industrial project ecosystems. Economic Dimension Food processing raises value addition in agriculture (India ~10% vs global ~20–30%), with schemes aiming to narrow this gap, enhance agro-exports, and stabilise farmer price realisation. Generates non-farm rural employment, supports MSMEs, FPO linkages, and women entrepreneurs, and reduces import dependence in processed foods, strengthening domestic value chains and forex earnings. Ethical Dimension PMFME’s ODOP approach promotes local specialties, traditional foods, and GI-linked products, preserving culinary heritage while creating income opportunities for rural and women-led enterprises. Inclusive design benefits small farmers, SHGs, and micro-entrepreneurs, but unequal state capacity may skew benefits toward administratively stronger states, raising regional equity concerns. Environmental Dimension Cold chains and processing reduce food wastage, indirectly lowering embedded water, energy, and carbon losses, supporting climate-resilient agri-food systems. However, processing expansion may raise energy use, packaging waste, and water demand, requiring greener technologies and circular economy practices. Data & Evidence Maharashtra leads PMKSY with 242 projects, ₹1,255 crore grants; shows clustering in agro-industrial states with strong market linkages and logistics ecosystems. PMFME leaders: Bihar (28,648 units), Maharashtra (27,360), Uttar Pradesh (22,060), indicating scheme success in populous agrarian states with large informal food sectors. PLISFPI investments highest in Gujarat (₹1,343 crore) and Uttar Pradesh (₹1,052 crore), reflecting investor preference for infrastructure-ready and market-accessible regions. Challenges Regulatory delays, credit constraints, and compliance burdens slow project execution, particularly affecting small entrepreneurs with limited administrative capacity. Fragmented supply chains, weak branding, and limited R&D restrict India’s move toward high-value processed food exports compared to global leaders. Way Forward Streamline single-window clearances, standardise state regulations, and fast-track approvals for agro-processing infrastructure to reduce gestation delays. Promote green processing technologies, branding support, export facilitation, and FPO integration, aligning schemes with SDGs, nutrition security, and climate-smart agriculture.

Content: Farmers’ pulse Farmers’ pulse Source : The Hindu Basics and context What are pulses? Pulses = edible dried seeds of leguminous crops (family Fabaceae), harvested for grain; distinct from oilseeds (soybean, groundnut) and green vegetable legumes (beans, peas consumed fresh). FAO definition: crops harvested solely for dry grain, naturally high in protein (18–25%), fibre, micronutrients, and capable of biological nitrogen fixation. Nutritional and strategic importance Pulses supply about 25% of India’s non-cereal protein, provide essential amino acids, and support dietary diversity for millions, making them central to nutrition security in a cereal-dominated food system. As nitrogen-fixing legumes, pulses reduce fertiliser use, improve soil health, and fit climate-smart agriculture, especially in semi-arid regions where water and input constraints limit cereal sustainability. Demand–supply realities India’s pulse production remains around 2.5 crore tonnes annually, while demand is near 3 crore tonnes, creating a 4–5 million tonne structural deficit routinely bridged through calibrated imports. Over 70% pulse area is rain-fed, making output highly sensitive to monsoon variability, yield shocks, and climate stress, unlike irrigated rice-wheat systems enjoying stronger procurement and policy backing. Relevance   GS III – Agriculture & Economy  Food & nutrition security Cropping pattern & diversification MSP, procurement, price policy Agri trade & import dependence Climate-resilient agriculture Practice Question “India’s pulse policy must balance farmer income and consumer prices.” Discuss.(250 Words) Why in news ? Trade sensitivity and farmer concerns Indications of U.S. pulse exports to India raised alarms because assured imports during harvest season depress mandi prices, directly affecting incomes of nearly five crore pulse-growing farmers and families. After the 2020–21 farm law protests, farmers view trade-linked agricultural commitments cautiously, fearing policy bias toward cheap imports and consumers rather than remunerative and stable domestic farm-gate prices. New self-sufficiency push The 2025 Pulse Self-Sufficiency Mission allocates ₹11,440 crore, targeting 310 lakh hectares and 350 lakh tonnes production by 2030-31, signalling a major scale-up in state support for pulses. However, past missions delivered mixed results due to weak procurement, delayed payments, and limited extension, creating scepticism among farmers about whether announced targets will translate into reliable incomes. Governance and policy architecture MSP and procurement gaps Although MSPs are declared for major pulses annually, actual procurement under the Price Support Scheme ranged only 2.9%–12.4% of production during 2019-24, limiting real price support impact. Many States lack adequate procurement centres, storage, and assaying facilities, forcing farmers into distress sales to private traders below MSP, weakening credibility of official price assurances and diversification incentives. Policy dualism Government frequently uses imports and tariff changes to cool prices for consumers, but repeated interventions create uncertainty, discouraging farmers from investing in productivity, quality seeds, and better agronomic practices. Economic, social and environmental relevance Farm economics and diversification Pulse yields in India remain below several global benchmarks due to limited irrigation, input use, and R&D diffusion, reducing profitability compared to cereals backed by assured procurement and input subsidies. Weak returns push farmers toward rice, wheat, or cash crops, undermining diversification, increasing water stress, and perpetuating import dependence that exposes India to global price and supply fluctuations. Nutrition and equity Pulses are the cheapest protein source for large vegetarian and low-income populations; unstable availability or high prices worsen protein deficiency, directly affecting child nutrition and public health outcomes. Ensuring affordable pulses supports nutrition equity, linking agricultural policy with human development goals, mid-day meals, and food-based welfare programmes targeting vulnerable populations. Environmental sustainability Pulses enhance soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation, reduce chemical fertiliser demand, and lower greenhouse gas footprints relative to fertiliser-intensive cereals, supporting sustainable intensification strategies. Yet, heavy concentration in marginal rain-fed areas exposes pulse farmers to climate risks, making resilience investments in seeds, water management, and advisories crucial for stable production. Challenges and way forward Structural challenges Import reliance and price crashes: Large tur imports in 2016–17 after domestic output recovery led to mandi prices falling below MSP in Maharashtra and Karnataka, discouraging farmers from expanding pulse acreage next seasons. Low procurement credibility: With PSS procurement only 2.9%–12.4% of output (2019–24), many farmers in MP and Rajasthan report selling chana and masur below MSP due to absent or delayed procurement operations. Policy unpredictability: Frequent tariff changes and stock limits under the Essential Commodities framework for pulses like tur and urad create uncertainty, making farmers risk-averse about allocating land to pulses. Seed and R&D gaps: Adoption of improved varieties such as Pusa-372 (chickpea) or IPM-02-3 (moong) remains uneven because certified seed distribution and last-mile extension are weak in major pulse belts. Weak extension example: Rain-fed pulse farmers in Bundelkhand and Vidarbha often rely on traditional practices due to limited agri-advisory reach, leading to yields significantly below research-station potential. Reform priorities Decentralised MSP procurement: States like Madhya Pradesh under Bhavantar-type price support showed that price deficiency payments and local procurement can reduce distress sales when implemented transparently and on time. Digital and localised systems: Expanding e-NAM linked procurement and FPO-led aggregation, as seen in parts of Karnataka, can improve farmer access to MSP operations and reduce trader intermediation. Trade aligned to crop cycles: Imposing or raising duties on tur during peak arrivals, as India has periodically done, helps prevent import-led price crashes and stabilises domestic markets. Productivity-led model: Success of short-duration moong in rice fallows in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha shows how improved varieties and advisories can raise pulse output without expanding net sown area. Irrigation and advisories: Micro-irrigation support under PMKSY (irrigation) in pulse belts of Gujarat and Telangana has demonstrated higher and more stable yields compared to purely rain-fed plots. Seed systems strengthening: Scaling breeder–foundation–certified seed chains through ICAR and State Agricultural Universities can replicate successes seen in wheat and rice seed replacement gains. Major pulses in India Pulse (Common name) Season Key Producing States Key Facts (Data & Static Points) Chana (Chickpea/Bengal gram) Rabi MP, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, UP ~40–45% of India’s pulse output; Desi & Kabuli types; 20–22% protein; thrives in cool, dry winters Tur/Arhar (Pigeon pea) Kharif Maharashtra, Karnataka, MP, Gujarat Long duration (160–200 days); deep-rooted, drought tolerant; major source of dal in India Urad (Black gram) Kharif/Zaid UP, MP, Tamil Nadu, AP Short duration (70–90 days); used in idli/dosa batter; suitable for intercropping Moong (Green gram) Kharif/Zaid Rajasthan, Maharashtra, AP, Karnataka Very short duration (60–70 days); ideal for rice-fallow cultivation; highly digestible protein Masur (Lentil) Rabi UP, MP, Bihar, WB Rich in iron and protein; fits well in rice–lentil systems; cool-season crop Field pea (Matar) Rabi UP, Punjab, Haryana, MP Dual use (vegetable + pulse); used in mixed cropping with wheat

Content Govt. unveils new CPI series; retail inflation in Jan. at 2.75% Dal Lake – environmental degradation and conservation challenges Substantive motion in Parliament Pothole-related road fatalities jumped 53% in 5 years How Tamil, Sanskrit, Prakrit names ended up on walls of Egyptian tombs Civil society, scientists raise alarm over safety gaps in WHO pandemic pact Govt. unveils new CPI series; retail inflation in Jan. at 2.75% Source :The Hindu Why in news ? New base year and latest inflation MoSPI released a new CPI series with base year 2024, replacing 2012, reporting January 2026 retail inflation at 2.75%, within RBI’s tolerance band. As it is the first release under the new base, long-term comparison with old series is limited, a common transition issue seen in statistical rebasing globally. Relevance GS III (Indian Economy): Inflation measurement, monetary policy, RBI inflation targeting, statistics in policymaking. Practice question Discuss the importance of accurate inflation measurement for monetary policy and welfare delivery in India.(250 Words) Basics and static context What is CPI and why it matters ? Consumer Price Index (CPI) measures change in retail prices of a fixed basket of goods and services consumed by households; it is India’s main indicator of inflation and cost of living. CPI is used by the RBI for inflation targeting (4% ±2%) under the Monetary Policy Framework Agreement, guiding repo rate decisions that affect loans, savings and growth. Who compiles CPI ? CPI is compiled by MoSPI’s National Statistical Office (NSO) through nationwide price collection; methodology aligns with international standards used by UN, IMF and ILO for comparability. India publishes multiple CPIs (Rural, Urban, Combined), but CPI-Combined is the key headline number for macroeconomic policy and RBI targeting. What changed in the new CPI ? Updated consumption basket Total items increased from 299 to 358, reflecting diversification of consumption; goods rose to 308 and services to 50, capturing modern spending like telecom and services better. Basket weights are derived from HCES 2023–24, ensuring CPI mirrors current household spending, unlike outdated baskets that may over/understate inflation. Wider data coverage Rural price collection expanded to 1,465 markets (from 1,181) and urban to 1,395 (from 1,114), improving geographical representation and statistical reliability. Larger sample sizes reduce volatility and bias, similar to how periodic updates improved accuracy in GDP and IIP series. Economic rationale for rebasing Reflecting structural change Over a decade, rising incomes, urbanisation and digitalisation shift spending toward services, health, education and communication, requiring updated CPI weights. Without rebasing, inflation may be mismeasured; for example, over-weighting cereals when diets diversify could distort true cost-of-living changes. Policy credibility Accurate CPI strengthens monetary policy credibility, as RBI decisions depend on realistic inflation signals. Investors and rating agencies rely on credible inflation data for macroeconomic assessments. Limitations and cautions Comparability issues New base breaks direct comparison with older series; analysts often create back-casted series later for continuity. Short-term movements may reflect methodological shifts as well as real price changes. Data challenges Informal markets, quality changes and new products complicate price measurement, a universal CPI challenge noted by statistical agencies worldwide. Rapid tech evolution (e.g., smartphones) requires frequent basket updates to avoid substitution bias. Way forward Strengthening price statistics Regular 5-year rebasing cycles can keep CPI aligned with fast-changing consumption patterns. Greater use of digital price collection and scanner data can improve timeliness and coverage. Communication and transparency Clear public communication on methodology helps avoid misinterpretation of inflation trends during base changes. Publishing concordance tables between old and new series aids researchers and policymakers. CPI vs WPI Feature CPI (Consumer Price Index) WPI (Wholesale Price Index) Meaning Measures change in retail prices faced by consumers Measures change in wholesale prices at producer/wholesaler level Compiled by NSO (MoSPI) Office of Economic Adviser, DPIIT (Ministry of Commerce) Base Year (latest) 2024 (new series) 2011–12 Purpose Measures cost of living & inflation for consumers Measures price trends in bulk trade/production Coverage Goods + Services Only Goods (no services) No. of items ~358 items (new series) ~697 items Major weight Food & beverages have high weight (~45% earlier series) Manufactured products have highest weight (~64%) Population scope CPI-Rural, CPI-Urban, CPI-Combined Single national index Policy relevance RBI uses CPI for inflation targeting (4% ±2%) Used for business decisions, deflator in national accounts Reflects Demand-side inflation (consumer impact) Supply-side/producer inflation Volatility More volatile due to food & fuel Less volatile than CPI in many cases Global comparability Internationally used for inflation targeting Less used globally for policy targeting Example use DA revision, wage indexation Industrial price trends, contract escalation Dal Lake – environmental degradation and conservation challenges Source :The Hindu Why in news ? Policy shift in conservation J&K government shelved the ₹416.72-crore Dal restoration plan (approved 2009) and proposed an in-situ conservation approach, allowing dwellers to continue living on the lake. The earlier plan targeted relocation of ~9,000 families, but only 1,808 families were rehabilitated in 17 years, achieving about 27% of intended conservation outcomes. Relevance GS III (Environment): Wetland degradation, eutrophication, urban ecology, conservation policy. GS I (Geography): Lakes, catchment impacts, land-use change. Practice question What is eutrophication and how does it affect urban lakes like Dal?(250 Words) Basics and static context Location and physical features Dal Lake is an urban freshwater lake in Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, fed by springs and channels from the Zabarwan range, historically covering ~22–25 sq km including marshes and floating gardens. It is divided into basins like Gagribal, Lokut Dal, Bod Dal and Nigeen, with interconnected channels; shallow depth and slow flushing make it naturally vulnerable to pollution accumulation. Ecological and economic significance Dal Lake supports tourism, fisheries, lotus cultivation and houseboat livelihoods, forming a key part of Kashmir’s economy and cultural identity. It functions as an urban ecological buffer, moderating microclimate, supporting biodiversity, and storing floodwaters in the Jhelum basin. Environmental pressures Sewage and pollution load Untreated sewage from households, hotels and houseboats enters the lake through point and non-point sources; SKUAST (2022) flagged “extreme pollution loads” and deteriorating water quality. High organic load raises BOD and nutrient levels, accelerating eutrophication, a pattern also observed in other urban lakes like Bengaluru’s Bellandur. Eutrophication and weed growth Excess nitrogen and phosphorus from sewage and fertilisers cause algal blooms and macrophyte overgrowth, choking open water and reducing dissolved oxygen for fish. Proliferation of weeds like Eichhornia (water hyacinth) reduces water spread and impedes navigation and recreation. Catchment degradation Deforestation, grazing and agriculture in the catchment increase silt and nutrient inflow, shrinking effective water area and altering lake morphology. Land use change in the Zabarwan foothills has increased runoff and sedimentation, a common driver of lake ageing. Encroachment and population pressure Expansion of settlements, houseboats and floating gardens (raad) leads to encroachment and solid waste generation, converting water areas into marshy land. Urban lakes worldwide show similar stress where shoreline regulation is weak, e.g., Dal-like pressures on Nainital Lake. Reduced inflows and circulation Blocked or reduced inflows and internal channels lower water circulation and flushing, concentrating pollutants and accelerating stagnation. Hydrological fragmentation disrupts natural self-cleansing capacity of the lake. Invasive species and biodiversity loss SKUAST noted invasive plants and animals altering native biodiversity; invasive macrophytes outcompete native flora and change habitat structure. Biodiversity simplification reduces ecological resilience and fisheries productivity. Substantive motion in Parliament  Source : The Hindu Basics and concept What is a substantive motion ? A substantive motion is a self-contained, independent proposal submitted for the decision of the House, drafted to express a definite opinion, will, or order of Parliament. It is different from subsidiary or procedural motions because it does not depend on another motion and itself becomes the subject of debate and voting in the House. Source in parliamentary practice Not explicitly in the Constitution but derived from Rules of Procedure of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha and classical texts like Kaul & Shakdher: Practice and Procedure of Parliament. Rooted in the Westminster parliamentary tradition, where motions are primary tools for the House to articulate collective decisions and hold members or government accountable. Relevance GS II (Polity & Governance): Parliamentary procedures, legislative accountability, deliberative democracy. Practice question What is a substantive motion? How is it different from other motions?(150 Words) Types and scope Common examples Motion of Thanks to the President’s Address, election/removal motions for Speaker or Deputy Speaker, and motions on matters of public importance are classic substantive motions. Substantive motions can relate to privileges, conduct of members, or policy positions, provided they meet admissibility rules and are framed in proper parliamentary language. Who can move it ? Usually moved by any member who gives prior notice; in certain cases (like motions concerning ministers), conventions and rules determine who may move it. Notice period and format are regulated by the Rules of Procedure, ensuring seriousness and preventing frivolous use. Procedure Admissibility and listing The Speaker/Chairman decides admissibility, checking relevance, clarity, and conformity with rules; motions cannot raise matters sub judice or violate privilege norms. Once admitted, it is listed for business, and time for discussion is allocated by the Business Advisory Committee or by the Chair. Debate and voting Members debate the motion; the mover has a right of reply at the end of discussion, a key feature of substantive motions. The motion is then put to vote; if passed, it becomes the formal decision or opinion of the House. Constitutional and governance relevance Link with collective responsibility Though distinct from a no-confidence motion, substantive motions contribute to the system where the executive is accountable to the legislature under Article 75 (collective responsibility). They provide a structured way for Parliament to record positions on governance, ethics, and institutional matters. Instrument of deliberative democracy They enable discussion on public issues beyond routine law-making, strengthening Parliament’s role as a deliberative forum, not merely a legislative factory. By requiring formal notice and voting, they promote reasoned debate and recorded decisions, key to transparent governance. Distinction from other motions Vs. no-confidence motion A no-confidence motion targets the Council of Ministers and, if passed, has direct political consequences; a substantive motion may not necessarily test government majority. All no-confidence motions are substantive, but not all substantive motions are no-confidence motions, showing broader scope. Vs. adjournment and calling attention Adjournment motions are exceptional devices to discuss urgent matters and interrupt normal business; they have stricter admissibility and are not routine substantive expressions of House opinion. Calling attention is informational and does not culminate in a formal decision of the House, unlike substantive motions that end in a vote. Significance Institutional accountability Substantive motions can address conduct of high authorities or members, helping maintain ethical standards and institutional integrity within Parliament. They create a formal parliamentary record, which can guide future conventions and interpretations. Democratic value They operationalise the idea that Parliament is the sovereign deliberative body in a parliamentary democracy, expressing the will of the people through elected representatives. Their structured nature balances free speech of members with procedural discipline. Types of Motions in Indian Parliament  Type of Motion Meaning / Purpose Key Features  Example / Use Substantive Motion Independent, self-contained proposal for House decision Needs notice; debated and voted; expresses definite opinion/will of House Motion of Thanks to President’s Address Substitute Motion Moved in place of original motion If adopted, replaces original; must relate to same subject Alternative version of a policy motion Subsidiary Motion Depends on another motion Cannot stand alone; aids discussion or disposal of main motion Amendments, procedural motions Amendment Motion Seeks to modify a motion Can add/delete/alter words; voted before main motion Amending Motion of Thanks No-Confidence Motion Tests majority of Council of Ministers Lok Sabha only; needs 50 members’ support to admit; if passed, govt resigns Used to remove government Confidence Motion (Trust Vote) Govt proves majority Initiated by govt; simple majority required During coalition uncertainty Adjournment Motion Raises urgent matter of public importance Interrupts normal business; exceptional device; LS mainly Major accident/scam issue Calling Attention Motion Draws minister’s attention to urgent matter Minister makes statement; no voting; informational Law & order issue Privilege Motion Addresses breach of parliamentary privilege Against MP/minister for misleading House False statement in House Censure Motion Expresses strong disapproval of govt policy Must state reasons; LS; political pressure but not removal Policy failure criticism Cut Motions Reduce demands in Budget Types: Policy, Economy, Token; tool for financial control Reduce demand for a ministry Half-Hour Discussion Motion Clarifies matters needing explanation Based on starred/unstarred questions; short duration Clarifying policy detail Closure Motion Ends debate If accepted, House votes on main motion To avoid prolonged debate Pothole-related road fatalities jumped 53% in 5 years Source : Indian Express Basics and static context What counts as pothole-related accidents ? Pothole-related accidents are crashes where road surface defects directly cause loss of control, recorded in police FIRs and compiled by MoRTH in its annual Road Accidents in India reports. They fall under infrastructure-related causes, alongside poor signage and road design; globally, WHO notes road infrastructure quality significantly influences crash risks, especially for two-wheelers and pedestrians. Scale of the problem in India India records about 1.7 lakh road deaths annually (2024), the highest in the world; even small shares from potholes translate into thousands of preventable deaths. India has the second-largest road network (~63 lakh km), including ~1.46 lakh km of National Highways, making maintenance a massive governance and fiscal challenge. Relevance GS III (Infrastructure): Road safety, public infrastructure management. GS II (Governance): Accountability of agencies, urban governance. Practice question Road accidents in India are as much a governance failure as a transport issue. Discuss with reference to pothole deaths.(250 Words) Why in news ? Sharp rise in fatalities Lok Sabha data show pothole deaths rose from 1,555 (2020) to 2,385 (2024) — a 53% jump, signalling worsening road maintenance outcomes despite rising infrastructure spending. Total pothole-linked deaths over 2020–24 reached 9,438, averaging nearly 5 deaths daily, highlighting that potholes are not minor defects but serious safety hazards. Data and trends Accident and injury pattern Pothole accidents increased from 3,713 (2020) to 5,432 (2024); grievous injuries also remained high, showing that many victims survive with long-term disabilities. Minor injuries crossed 10,000 cases in five years, indicating a broader safety burden beyond fatalities, including healthcare costs and productivity losses. State-wise concentration Uttar Pradesh contributes the largest share of deaths, consistent with its overall high road fatality numbers and vast road network. MP, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Assam together account for over 80% of pothole deaths, showing regional clustering linked to traffic density and maintenance gaps. Governance and policy dimension Maintenance vs construction bias India’s road policy has prioritised new highway construction, but maintenance budgets and monitoring often lag, leading to rapid deterioration, especially after monsoons. Contracts sometimes focus on asset creation, not lifecycle upkeep; performance-based maintenance is less uniformly enforced across states and urban local bodies. Accountability issues Multiple agencies (NHAI, PWDs, municipalities) share responsibility, causing diffused accountability when pothole deaths occur. Though courts have occasionally held authorities liable, routine criminal or financial accountability for negligence remains rare. Economic and social implications Economic costs Road crashes cost India an estimated ~3–5% of GDP annually (various government and World Bank estimates); pothole crashes add to repair costs, medical bills and productivity losses. Logistics delays from poor road quality raise transport costs, indirectly affecting inflation and competitiveness. Social justice angle Victims are often two-wheeler riders and lower-income commuters, who are more exposed and less protected than car occupants. Families of victims face sudden income shocks, linking road safety with poverty and social protection concerns. Environmental and urban angle Urban flooding and potholes Poor drainage and waterlogging accelerate pothole formation; cities with clogged stormwater systems see roads degrade quickly after heavy rains. Climate change–linked extreme rainfall events can worsen this cycle, raising maintenance demands. Challenges and way forward Structural challenges Reactive “patchwork repairs” dominate over scientific resurfacing, leading to recurring potholes within a single season. Weak data integration between police, transport and road agencies limits targeted interventions on blackspots. Reform priorities Adopt performance-based maintenance contracts with penalties for defects, as used in some highway PPP models. Use geo-tagging, citizen-reporting apps and third-party audits to monitor road quality; some cities already pilot such digital grievance systems. Integrate road safety with Safe System Approach (safer roads, vehicles, speeds, users, post-crash care) recommended by WHO. How Tamil, Sanskrit, Prakrit names ended up on walls of Egyptian tombs Source : Indian Express Why in news ? New academic findings Recent publication of the 30-inscription corpus strengthens evidence of early India–Egypt links, moving beyond speculative trade theories to direct epigraphic proof of Indian presence in Egypt. It feeds into broader debates on ancient globalisation, showing mobility across the Red Sea and Indian Ocean two millennia ago, comparable to Roman–Indian trade evidenced by Muziris finds. Relevance GS I (Ancient History & Culture): Indo-Roman trade, cultural contacts. Practice question What do Indian inscriptions in Egypt reveal about ancient trade networks?(150 Words) Basics and historical context What are these inscriptions Graffiti-style inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi, Prakrit and Sanskrit found in Egypt’s Valley of the Kings (c. 300 BCE–200 CE), showing visiting foreigners carved names, origins, and devotional messages, like ancient travel records. Unlike royal hieroglyphs, these are informal visitor inscriptions, similar to pilgrimage graffiti at Indian Buddhist sites like Sanchi, where travellers recorded names, places, and religious sentiments. Who deciphered them ? A 2024–25 study by Charlotte Schmid (EFEO, Paris) documented 30 Indian-language inscriptions, using epigraphy and comparative linguistics to identify Tamil-Brahmi scripts and Indo-Aryan linguistic features. Cross-referencing letter forms with Sangam-era Tamil-Brahmi (3rd BCE onward) helped date inscriptions, as shapes of “ra,” “na,” and vowel markers match early South Indian cave inscriptions. What the names show ? Names like “Korran,” “Kopan,” and “Saman” resemble Tamil and Prakrit naming traditions; for example, “Korran” parallels Sangam titles for chieftains and warriors in Chera–Pandya regions. Some inscriptions include place-based identifiers, implying travellers linked identity to homeland, similar to donative inscriptions in India stating “so-and-so from Karur or Madurai.” Trade and connectivity dimension Indian Ocean trade networks Between 1st BCE–2nd CE, Indo-Roman trade flourished; Roman coins found in Tamil Nadu and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describe Indian merchants sailing to Egyptian Red Sea ports like Berenike. These inscriptions suggest some traders or pilgrims travelled onward to the Nile valley, showing routes were not just maritime but linked to inland cultural landmarks. Cultural cosmopolitanism Ancient port cities like Alexandria and Berenike were multicultural hubs; archaeological finds include Indian beads and pepper, supporting textual evidence of Indo-Mediterranean exchange. Multilingualism was common among merchant groups; Prakrit and Tamil functioning as trade languages parallels use of Aramaic or Greek across West Asian trade corridors. Social and cultural insights Travel motivations Not all travellers were merchants; some inscriptions resemble pilgrimage-style declarations, suggesting curiosity, ritual travel, or status display, similar to elites visiting sacred or famous sites. Valley of the Kings was a famed site even in antiquity; Greek and Latin graffiti there show it functioned as an early tourist destination by 1st millennium BCE–CE. Identity expression Writing one’s name in native script abroad signals strong cultural identity; comparable to Indian merchant guild inscriptions in Southeast Asia asserting community presence. Scripts acted as cultural markers; Tamil-Brahmi use abroad indicates literacy among sections of early South Indian trading communities. Historiographical significance Rethinking isolationist views Findings challenge older views that ancient Indian societies were regionally confined, instead supporting models of long-distance mobility and interaction across Afro-Eurasia. They complement evidence like Indian cotton in Egypt and Roman gold in South India, forming a multi-source case for deep connectivity. Limits of evidence Small sample size (≈30 inscriptions) means presence, not population scale; like Roman coins in India, they indicate contact but not large migration. Epigraphy shows who left marks, not entire communities; absence of evidence elsewhere doesn’t negate wider interaction networks. Civil society, scientists raise alarm over safety gaps in WHO pandemic pact Source : Down to Earth Why in news ? Ongoing WHO negotiations WHO members are negotiating the PABS annex before the 79th World Health Assembly (May 2026), making it the last unresolved operational pillar of the first global pandemic treaty. February 2026 open letters from scientists and civil society flagged weak biosecurity and diluted benefit-sharing, warning current draft may prioritise speed over safety and fairness. Relevance GS II (IR): Global health governance, WHO reforms, equity in global commons. GS III (S&T + Health): Biosecurity, biotechnology risks. Practice question COVID-19 exposed inequities in global health governance. Discuss how new pandemic agreements can address these gaps.(250 Words) Basics and static context What is pathogen sharing and why it exists ? Pathogen sharing involves countries providing virus samples and genetic sequences to global databases for surveillance, vaccine R&D and diagnostics; e.g., rapid SARS-CoV-2 sequencing in 2020 enabled mRNA vaccine design within months. WHO-led systems like GISRS for influenza since 1952 show pathogen sharing accelerates risk detection; seasonal flu vaccines are reformulated biannually using globally shared strains, demonstrating long-standing public-health value. What is PABS under the Pandemic Agreement ? Pathogen Access and Benefit Sharing (PABS) links rapid sharing of pathogens with fair access to vaccines, drugs and diagnostics; conceptually similar to WHO’s Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) Framework. The Pandemic Agreement (2025) emerged after COVID-19 exposed governance gaps; despite COVAX, high-income countries pre-purchased large shares of early doses, leaving low-income countries dependent on donations and delayed supply. Global equity dimension COVID-era lessons During COVID-19, over 70% of people in low-income countries had not received a first dose by mid-2021, while many rich countries had surplus contracts, illustrating structural inequity in vaccine access. Countries like South Africa shared variant data (e.g., Omicron) but later faced travel bans and delayed vaccine access, creating distrust around “share-now, benefit-later” arrangements. Biosecurity and technology risks Misuse of genetic data Public genetic sequences can enable synthetic reconstruction of viruses; in 2017, researchers recreated horsepox virus, showing feasibility of synthesising large viral genomes using commercially available DNA fragments. Costs of DNA synthesis have fallen sharply over two decades, lowering entry barriers for advanced labs and raising dual-use concerns when oversight and identity verification are weak. AI and synthetic biology AI tools can assist in protein design and sequence optimisation; while beneficial for vaccines, the same tools could hypothetically help design more transmissible or immune-evasive variants if misused. Experts note bio-risk now combines digital (cyber + data) and biological domains, requiring cybersecurity standards for genomic databases similar to those used in critical digital infrastructure. Governance and legal concerns Accountability gaps Civil society letters argue draft PABS makes benefit sharing optional, allowing companies to choose contribution types; contrast this with PIP Framework where manufacturers commit specific benefit contributions. Lack of mandatory reporting for lab accidents or cyber breaches contrasts with biosafety norms in many countries where notifiable incidents are legally reportable to regulators. Transparency deficits Critics highlight limited pre-sharing of negotiation texts and restricted civil society participation, unlike some climate negotiations where draft texts are circulated widely for stakeholder input. Public health and development implications Trust and cooperation If countries fear unfair returns, they may delay sharing samples; Indonesia in 2007 withheld H5N1 samples over vaccine access concerns, showing how equity disputes can hinder surveillance. Reduced sharing slows variant detection, undermining early warning systems that saved time during Ebola, Zika and COVID-19 responses. Way forward Stronger safeguards Mandate verified identities and access logs for genomic databases, similar to controlled-access clinical data repositories used for human genome research. Require reporting of lab incidents and risky research, aligning with Biosafety Level (BSL) norms already applied in high-containment laboratories worldwide. Fair benefit sharing Create binding financial and product commitments from companies, with predefined shares for WHO stockpiles, learning from advance market commitments used in pneumococcal vaccines. Guarantee technology transfer and licensing during emergencies, as seen in mRNA tech-transfer hubs supported by WHO in countries like South Africa.