Content NITI Aayog Releases Report on ‘Revitalizing Apprenticeship Ecosystem: Insights, Challenges, Recommendations and Best Practices CAQM Reviews Supreme Court-Mandated Expert Report at 27th Meeting; PM2.5 Identified as Key Pollutant in Delhi NITI Aayog Releases Report on ‘Revitalizing Apprenticeship Ecosystem: Insights, Challenges, Recommendations and Best Practices A. Issue in Brief The report proposes a comprehensive overhaul of India’s apprenticeship ecosystem to align skilling with employability, productivity, and innovation under the broader vision of Viksit Bharat @2047. It introduces a common digital apprenticeship platform to streamline registration, matching, compliance, and monitoring, reducing transaction costs and improving transparency across states and sectors. A novel Apprenticeship Engagement Index (AEI) is recommended to benchmark state and district performance, fostering competitive federalism and measurable accountability in apprenticeship outcomes. The framework emphasizes empowering District Skill Committees (DSCs) as nodal implementation anchors to localize labour-market mapping and integrate industry demand with skilling institutions. Special focus is placed on enhancing MSME participation through cluster-based consortia, leveraging economies of scale to overcome capacity and compliance barriers faced by smaller enterprises. Relevance GS 2 – Governance / Social Justice Skill development architecture, cooperative federalism (Concurrent List – Entry 25), role of District Skill Committees, and performance benchmarking through Apprenticeship Engagement Index (AEI). GS  3 – Economy Addressing skill mismatch, youth unemployment (15–20% among educated youth – PLFS), MSME productivity, and human capital formation linked to PLI and Make in India. B. Constitutional & Legal Context The apprenticeship ecosystem derives legitimacy from Article 41 (Right to Work) under Directive Principles, mandating the State to secure employment and skill opportunities within economic capacity. The governing statute, Apprentices Act, 1961 (amended 2014, 2019), mandates enterprise participation while introducing optional trades and simplified norms to encourage industry engagement. As vocational training falls under the Concurrent List (Entry 25), effective implementation requires cooperative federalism between Union skill missions and State Skill Development Authorities. Legal harmonization is required between apprenticeship provisions and emerging labour codes to ensure stipend safeguards, insurance coverage, and grievance redressal clarity. C. Structural & Governance Reforms The proposed single-window digital platform integrates employer registration, apprentice matching, compliance tracking, and analytics, improving ease of doing business for industry stakeholders. The Apprenticeship Engagement Index (AEI) aims to create measurable performance indicators such as apprentice density, MSME participation rate, and post-training absorption levels. Strengthening District Skill Committees enhances decentralized governance, enabling real-time labour demand assessments and convergence with ITIs, PMKVY centers, and industrial clusters. The framework identifies the need for third-party audits and outcome-based monitoring, ensuring quality assurance and reducing risks of tokenistic apprenticeship enrollments. D. Economic Significance Apprenticeships address India’s structural skill mismatch problem, improving employability and reducing frictional unemployment among educated youth, particularly in manufacturing and emerging technology sectors. Global evidence indicates apprenticeships can improve firm-level productivity by 5–15%, suggesting strong returns on investment for enterprises and national competitiveness. India’s 6.3 crore MSMEs employing over 11 crore workers represent an untapped reservoir for apprenticeship expansion through cluster-based collaborative models. By strengthening industry-linked skilling, the report aligns with PLI schemes and Make in India, supporting higher-value manufacturing and export competitiveness. E. Social & Ethical Dimensions With youth unemployment among educated cohorts often exceeding 15–20% (PLFS data), apprenticeships can serve as a structured transition from education to employment. Gender disparities persist in technical trades, necessitating targeted policies to increase women’s participation in apprenticeships, especially in high-growth sectors like electronics and renewables. Ensuring stipends align with minimum wage benchmarks is crucial to prevent exploitation and preserve apprenticeships as learning opportunities rather than low-cost labour substitutes. Apprenticeships enhance social mobility by integrating rural and semi-urban youth into formal sector value chains, thereby supporting inclusive growth objectives. F. Technology & Future of Work The report stresses integrating Industry 4.0 skills, including AI, robotics, semiconductors, and green technologies, to future-proof India’s workforce against technological disruptions. A data-driven apprenticeship ecosystem supported by digital analytics can enable predictive labour market planning and real-time monitoring of skill supply-demand dynamics. Linking apprenticeships with higher education credits under National Education Policy 2020 can reduce the academic-vocational divide and elevate the status of skill-based pathways. G. Key Challenges Identified Enterprise participation remains limited, with apprenticeship penetration below 1% of the total workforce, far lower than Germany or Japan’s 3–5% levels. Complex compliance requirements under the Apprentices Act discourage MSMEs, necessitating simplified norms and graded incentives to expand participation. Weak monitoring mechanisms at district levels hinder outcome measurement, reducing accountability for apprentice absorption and long-term employment outcomes. Societal stigma attached to vocational education constrains youth enrollment, reflecting persistent preference for degree-centric employment pathways. H. Way Forward Introduce graded fiscal incentives and tax credits for MSMEs engaging apprentices, particularly within identified industrial clusters and aspirational districts. Operationalize the Apprenticeship Engagement Index as a reform-linked ranking tool tied to central funding allocations for skill development programs. Establish robust social security coverage including ESIC and accident insurance for apprentices to strengthen trust and participation. Encourage CSR and industry associations to co-create apprenticeship consortia, leveraging community networks to scale high-quality training opportunities. Position apprenticeships as a strategic human capital investment integral to achieving SDG 4 (Quality Education), SDG 8 (Decent Work), and SDG 9 (Industry & Innovation). I. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers Apprentices Act enacted in 1961, amended in 2014 and 2019 to simplify compliance and introduce optional trades. The report proposes a new Apprenticeship Engagement Index (2026) to benchmark state and district-level performance. Apprenticeship penetration in India remains below 1% of workforce, significantly lower than advanced industrial economies. Practice Question (15 Marks) “India’s apprenticeship ecosystem remains underutilized despite demographic advantages.” Examine the structural bottlenecks in apprenticeship implementation and evaluate how recent reforms can enhance productivity, employability, and inclusive growth. CAQM Reviews Supreme Court-Mandated Expert Report at 27th Meeting; PM2.5 Identified as Key Pollutant in Delhi A. Issue in Brief At its 27th Full Commission Meeting (20 Feb 2026), CAQM reviewed a Supreme Court-mandated expert report identifying PM2.5 as the dominant pollutant driving AQI deterioration in Delhi. The expert meta-analysis (2015–2025) highlights the combined impact of local emissions and transboundary airshed transport, underscoring the regional nature of NCR air pollution. CAQM approved 46 additional Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAAQMS) across NCR, increasing total stations to 157, enhancing spatial coverage and baseline assessment accuracy. Stricter PM emission norms for industries, strengthened construction and demolition (C&D) waste rules, and reinforced dust mitigation protocols were approved. The Commission emphasized coordinated implementation of State Action Plans (2026) and strict vigilance under statutory directions including GRAP enforcement. Relevance GS 3 – Environment PM2.5 as dominant pollutant, source apportionment (2015–2025), secondary particulates (27% winter share), dust (27% summer share), and regional airshed management. GS 2 – Governance / Polity Role of CAQM under 2021 Act, Article 21 (Right to Clean Air), Supreme Court oversight (W.P. 1135/2020), GRAP enforcement, and inter-state coordination in NCR. B. Constitutional & Legal Context Article 21 (Right to Life) has been judicially expanded to include the right to clean air, forming the constitutional basis for judicial intervention in air pollution matters. The case W.P. (C) No. 1135/2020 led the Supreme Court to mandate expert-based source apportionment analysis for evidence-driven policy action. CAQM was constituted under the Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021, providing it overriding powers over State authorities in NCR. Statutory tools include GRAP (Graded Response Action Plan) and legally binding directions enforceable across Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. C. Source Apportionment Findings (Meta-Analysis 2015–2025) During winter months, major contributors to PM2.5 include Secondary Particulates (27%), Transport (23%), Biomass Burning (20%), Dust (15%), and Industry including TPPs (9%). In summer months, Dust (27%) becomes the dominant contributor, followed by Transport (19%), Secondary Particulates (17%), Industry (14%), and Biomass Burning (12%). Secondary particulates form from gaseous emissions of transport, industries, thermal power plants, and biomass burning, reflecting the need for precursor gas control strategies. The findings confirm that Delhi’s pollution is not solely local but influenced by regional airshed dynamics and inter-state emission flows. D. Governance & Administrative Measures Approval of 46 new CAAQMS stations (14 Delhi, 16 Haryana, 1 Rajasthan, 15 Uttar Pradesh) strengthens grid-based spatial monitoring based on population and land-use criteria. Monitoring density enhancement to 157 stations in Delhi-NCR improves real-time AQI accuracy and regional pollutant attribution for targeted policy response. CAQM directed time-bound execution of State Action Plans (2026) focusing on transport, industry, dust control, waste management, and biomass burning mitigation. Enforcement Task Force actions, including industrial closures and resumptions, were reviewed to ensure compliance with emission norms and statutory directions. E. Transport & Infrastructure Dimension The Commission emphasized implementation of Multi-Lane Free Flow (MLFF) tolling systems, integrated with RFID and ANPR technologies to reduce vehicular congestion and idling emissions. Vehicular emissions remain a major winter contributor at 23% of PM2.5, necessitating stricter BS-VI compliance, EV transition acceleration, and congestion management reforms. Addressing congestion at MCD toll plazas is critical to minimizing localized emission hotspots and improving traffic flow efficiency. F. Agriculture & Biomass Burning CAQM’s Direction No. 96 (13 Feb 2026) mandates coordinated, time-bound implementation of State Action Plans to eliminate wheat stubble burning in 2026. Biomass burning contributes 20% of winter PM2.5, highlighting the urgent need for subsidy-backed machinery, crop diversification, and residue management incentives. Interstate coordination under CAQM ensures uniform enforcement across Punjab, Haryana, and Western UP to mitigate transboundary impacts. G. Industrial & Dust Regulation Stricter PM emission standards for industries across NCR aim to curb direct particulate discharge and precursor gases responsible for secondary particulate formation. Enhanced C&D waste management protocols target construction dust, a major contributor during summer months at 27%. Thermal power plants are included under tighter scrutiny to control emissions of SO₂ and NOx contributing to secondary particulate formation. H. Critical Challenges Despite statutory powers, inter-state coordination gaps may dilute uniform enforcement, especially during peak pollution episodes. Secondary particulate control requires precursor gas regulation, which demands costly retrofitting and technological upgrades across sectors. Public compliance in dust mitigation and construction norms remains weak due to monitoring capacity constraints at municipal levels. Transboundary pollution challenges underscore the absence of a legally binding national airshed-based management framework beyond NCR. I. Way Forward Adopt a regional airshed management model integrating scientific modelling, synchronized emission caps, and inter-state accountability mechanisms. Incentivize industries to adopt flue gas desulfurization (FGD) and advanced emission control technologies, supported by green financing instruments. Accelerate transition toward electric mobility and public transport expansion, targeting reduction of the 23% transport-linked PM2.5 burden. Strengthen public participation and transparency by making real-time source apportionment dashboards accessible to citizens. Align air quality strategy with SDG 3 (Good Health), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities), and SDG 13 (Climate Action) for integrated environmental governance. J. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers CAQM established under 2021 Act with overriding powers over NCR States. PM2.5 identified as dominant pollutant influencing AQI in Delhi as per 2015–2025 meta-analysis. Total CAAQMS in Delhi-NCR increased to 157 after approval of 46 new stations. Winter PM2.5 contributors: Secondary Particulates (27%) highest share. Practice Question (15 Marks) “Delhi’s air pollution is a manifestation of both local emissions and regional airshed dynamics.” Discuss the institutional and policy challenges in managing PM2.5 pollution in NCR and suggest measures for strengthening cooperative environmental federalism.

Content Gen Z and the dynamics of democratic engagement Bhasha’ matters in India’s multilingual moment Gen Z and the dynamics of democratic engagement I. Changing Global Democratic Context Recent international assessments such as Freedom House (2023) report democratic quality declining for the 17th consecutive year, with 35 countries showing deterioration in political rights and civil liberties. The V-Dem Report 2024 estimates nearly 72% of the global population lives under regimes experiencing some degree of democratic decline or institutional stress. Democracies face pressures including polarisation, declining trust in institutions, and shrinking civic participation, requiring renewed focus on accountability and institutional resilience. Relevance GS 1 (Indian Society) Demographic Dividend: Gen Z forms nearly 30% of India’s population, influencing social norms and political expectations. Urban Youth Unemployment: Around 15%+ (PLFS 2023), shaping economic anxieties and civic attitudes. Social Change: Greater tolerance toward gender equality and identity diversity compared to earlier cohorts. GS 2 (Polity & Governance) Constitutional Values: Liberty, accountability, rule of law under democratic frameworks. Pressure Groups: Shift from structured organisations to decentralised civic mobilisation. Digital Governance: India has 800+ million internet users, reshaping public discourse and regulatory challenges. II. Emergence of Gen Z as a Democratic Stakeholder Generation Z (1997–2012) comprises nearly 2 billion people globally, making it the largest youth cohort in contemporary politics. Youth-led mobilisations in Bangladesh (2024) and Nepal (2025) focused on transparency, anti-corruption, and institutional accountability, leading to administrative inquiries and reform discussions. Compared to earlier movements such as Occupy Wall Street (2011) or early-2010s protests, recent mobilisations appear more issue-specific and digitally coordinated. III. Lessons from Earlier Movements Occupy Wall Street (2011) mobilised in over 900 cities, yet struggled with leadership coherence and policy institutionalisation. Early-2010s movements led to political transitions in some contexts but faced challenges in sustaining stable institutional reform. These cases show that mass mobilisation alone does not guarantee long-term democratic consolidation. IV. Generational Recalibration of Values Gen Z blends democratic ideals with digital-era individualism, shaped by global exposure and social media connectivity. Surveys indicate higher openness toward gender equality and caste diversity, reflecting reduced social prejudice compared to previous generations. What appears as political detachment often represents a shift from ideological activism to experiential engagement. V. Core Worldview Emphasis on lived experience, dignity, and fairness rather than rigid ideological alignment. Civic engagement often centres on workplace conditions, discrimination, and everyday governance issues. Preference for pragmatic and situational responses rather than long-term doctrinal mobilisation. VI. Digital-First Civic Participation With 800+ million internet users in India, social media platforms function as primary spaces for mobilisation and debate. Campaigns are often leaderless and decentralised, relying on hashtags, peer networks, and short-form content. While digital reach enhances speed and scale, it may reduce sustained organisational continuity. VII. Comparison with Organised Movements The Farmers’ Movement (2020–24) demonstrated sustained leadership, negotiation frameworks, and legislative clarity over extended periods. In contrast, Gen Z mobilisations tend to be short-term and issue-focused, often dissolving after immediate objectives are addressed. Both forms represent legitimate democratic participation, but their institutional impact varies. VIII. Confidence–Anxiety Dynamic Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in higher education reached 28.4% (AISHE 2022–23), reflecting expanded educational access. Simultaneously, urban youth unemployment exceeds 15% (PLFS 2023), creating economic uncertainty. This combination produces assertiveness in civic claims alongside fragmentation in sustained engagement. IX. Mental Health and Civic Outlook Greater openness toward mental health counselling and therapy distinguishes Gen Z from earlier generations. Competitive labour markets and gig economy volatility influence expectations from governance and institutions. Civic participation increasingly intersects with dignity, wellbeing, and quality of life concerns. X. Market, Identity and Mobility Smartphone penetration exceeding 75% in urban youth cohorts enhances digital access and global exposure. Consumption patterns increasingly shape perceptions of opportunity and equality, sometimes transcending traditional identity markers. Digital access functions as a symbolic equaliser in social mobility narratives. XI. Aspirational National Outlook Digital ecosystems amplify narratives around technological progress, entrepreneurship, and innovation, including space missions and start-up growth. Youth nationalism often reflects future-oriented aspirations and global competitiveness. However, algorithm-driven echo chambers may contribute to polarised discourse, requiring balanced regulatory frameworks. XII. Democratic Promise and Constraints Strengths include reduced prejudice, strong demand for transparency, and readiness to question inefficiencies. Constraints include episodic mobilisation, limited structural organisation, and vulnerability to misinformation. Democratic deepening depends on integrating youth participation into institutional frameworks for sustained engagement. Conclusion Gen Z represents a digitally connected, aspirational, and economically conscious cohort navigating rapid technological and social change. Its engagement signals transformation in democratic participation rather than disengagement. Long-term outcomes depend on institutional responsiveness, inclusive governance, and stable participatory channels. Practice Question “Generation Z’s political engagement reflects a shift from ideological mass movements to digitally mediated episodic mobilisation.” Examine the implications of this transformation for democratic participation, institutional accountability, and governance stability in contemporary societies. (250 words) ‘Bhasha’ matters in India’s multilingual moment I. India’s Linguistic Landscape According to the Census 2011, India has over 1,300 mother tongues and 121 constitutionally recognised languages, representing one of the most diverse linguistic ecologies globally. The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution recognises 22 languages, yet everyday linguistic diversity extends far beyond formal recognition, particularly among tribal and minority communities. Linguistic diversity in India is not merely cultural capital but a cognitive and educational resource influencing early childhood development and social identity formation. Relevance GS 1 (Indian Society & Culture) Linguistic Diversity: 1,300+ mother tongues (Census 2011); unity in diversity. Role of Language in Identity: Cultural preservation, indigenous knowledge systems. Diversity & Social Cohesion: Multilingualism as integrative force. GS 3 (Human Capital & Technology) FLN & Productivity: Language barrier affects foundational literacy outcomes. Digital Public Infrastructure: BHASHINI, DIKSHA, PM eVIDYA. AI & Language Technology: Preservation of endangered languages. II. Language Loss and Knowledge Erosion UNESCO estimates that nearly 40% of the world’s 7,000 languages are endangered, implying rapid erosion of indigenous knowledge systems embedded in local languages. Language extinction results in loss of ecological wisdom, oral traditions, and community-based knowledge accumulated over generations, weakening cultural resilience and intergenerational transmission. Safeguarding languages is therefore both a cultural imperative and an educational necessity, linking identity preservation with inclusive development goals. III. Global Learning Deficit Linked to Language Globally, over 250 million learners lack access to education in a language they fully understand, contributing to foundational learning deficits. In India, 44% of children enter school with a home language different from the medium of instruction (NCERT, 2022), creating early comprehension barriers. This mismatch contributes to weak Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) outcomes and increases risk of cumulative learning gaps and eventual dropout. IV. Pedagogical Basis of MTB-MLE Research consistently shows that children learn concepts more effectively when taught in a language they comprehend, improving cognitive retention and classroom participation. UNESCO has long advocated mother-tongue-based multilingual education (MTB-MLE) as a condition for equitable and quality education under SDG 4. Multilingual instruction enhances transfer of skills across languages, enabling smoother transition to additional languages like Hindi or English in later grades. V. Policy Framework in India The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 recommends use of the mother tongue or regional language as medium of instruction at least until Grade 5, preferably till Grade 8. The National Curriculum Frameworks (2022–23) operationalise this vision by embedding multilingual pedagogy into early childhood and foundational stage learning. India’s approach aligns with global commitments under SDG 4 (Quality Education) and UNESCO’s advocacy for linguistic inclusion. VI. Evidence from UNESCO’s 2025 Report The seventh State of the Education Report for India (2025), titled “Bhasha Matters”, synthesises global research and national evidence supporting MTB-MLE effectiveness. The report outlines 10 policy recommendations, including teacher preparation, multilingual materials, gender responsiveness, community participation, and sustainable financing. It proposes a National Mission for Mother-Tongue-Based Multilingual Education to institutionalise reforms across ministries and stakeholders. VII. State-Level Best Practices Odisha’s multilingual education programme spans 21 tribal languages across 17 districts, supporting nearly 90,000 children, demonstrating scalable inclusion. Telangana leverages DIKSHA-enabled multilingual digital resources, expanding access to local-language content through digital infrastructure. National platforms like PM eVIDYA, BHASHINI, Adi Vaani, and AI4Bharat deploy AI and language technologies to document endangered languages and support teachers. VIII. Technology and Language Preservation India’s BHASHINI initiative aims to create digital public goods for Indian languages, enabling translation, speech recognition, and cross-lingual accessibility. AI-driven language documentation helps preserve endangered dialects while expanding digital inclusion for rural and tribal learners. Responsible investment in language technologies ensures linguistic equity does not lag behind digital transformation. IX. Social Equity and Identity Dimension Teaching in the mother tongue affirms cultural identity, enhances self-esteem, and reduces alienation among tribal and minority students. Linguistic recognition strengthens social cohesion, preventing marginalisation rooted in language hierarchies. Gender-responsive multilingual education can empower girls in communities where schooling barriers intersect with linguistic disadvantage. X. Challenges and Structural Gaps Teacher shortages in multilingual classrooms and inadequate pre-service training limit effective implementation of MTB-MLE. Development of high-quality textbooks and assessments in multiple languages requires sustained public investment. Balancing national integration with regional linguistic autonomy remains a delicate policy challenge. XI. Strategic Way Forward Establish a National Mission for MTB-MLE with dedicated funding, monitoring indicators, and inter-ministerial coordination mechanisms. Reform teacher education curricula to embed multilingual pedagogy and recruit teachers proficient in local languages. Institutionalise community participation to integrate indigenous knowledge into curriculum design and assessment practices. Align multilingual reforms with Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) frameworks to scale inclusive language technologies nationally. Conclusion India’s linguistic diversity is not a developmental constraint but a strategic asset for equity, identity and cognitive empowerment. By mainstreaming mother-tongue-based multilingual education, India can transform its demographic dividend into a culturally rooted and intellectually confident generation. Practice Question “Mother-tongue-based multilingual education is central to both learning equity and cultural preservation.” Discuss the pedagogical rationale, policy framework, and implementation challenges of multilingual education in India, citing recent initiatives and evidence.(250 Words)  

Content How Do Graphics Processing Units Work? Switzerland to Host AI Impact Summit 2027 ISRO’s Improved Fire-Detection Algorithm 1,750 MW Demwe Lower Hydropower Project India’s Soil Crisis – Urea Subsidy & Nutrient Imbalance How do graphics processing units work? Source : The Hindu A. Issue in Brief In 1999, Nvidia Corporation launched GeForce 256, branding it the “world’s first GPU”, initially aimed at improving videogame graphics performance. Over 25 years, GPUs evolved from gaming hardware to core infrastructure of AI, cloud computing and digital economy, powering large-scale neural network training and data centres. Today, high-end GPUs such as Nvidia’s H100 Tensor Core deliver up to 1.9 quadrillion tensor operations per second (FP16/BF16), forming backbone of generative AI systems. Nvidia commands roughly ~90% market share in discrete GPUs, raising competition law and strategic supply-chain concerns globally. Relevance GS 3 (Science & Tech / Economy / Security / Environment): Parallel computing architecture; AI hardware backbone; 90% discrete GPU market dominance; supply-chain concentration in East Asia; energy-intensive data centres; strategic tech controls. B. Static Background A Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) is a specialised processor designed for parallel processing, executing thousands of simple calculations simultaneously, unlike CPUs optimised for sequential complex tasks. A 1920×1080 display contains 2.07 million pixels per frame; at 60 frames per second, over 120 million pixel updates per second are required, illustrating GPU’s parallel advantage. GPUs contain hundreds or thousands of cores; while individual cores are weaker than CPU cores, aggregate throughput makes GPUs ideal for repetitive workloads. Both CPUs and GPUs use advanced fabrication nodes (e.g., 3–5 nm class silicon transistors), differing primarily in microarchitecture and workload specialisation. C. Technical Architecture & Functioning 1. Rendering Pipeline Vertex Processing applies matrix transformations to triangles composing 3D models, calculating spatial positioning and camera perspective using linear algebra operations. Rasterisation converts geometric triangles into pixel fragments, identifying which pixels correspond to specific shapes on screen. Fragment (Pixel) Shading calculates final pixel colour using lighting models, textures, reflections and shadow algorithms through small programs called shaders. Final image written to frame buffer memory, then displayed; high-speed memory movement enabled through VRAM (Video RAM) with high bandwidth architecture. 2. Parallelism & AI Computing Neural networks rely heavily on matrix and tensor multiplications, repetitive mathematical operations perfectly suited for GPU’s parallel core architecture. Contemporary AI models contain millions to billions of parameters, demanding both compute intensity and high memory bandwidth. Nvidia GPUs include Tensor Cores, specialised hardware units accelerating matrix multiplications central to deep learning workloads. Google developed Tensor Processing Units (TPUs) specifically to optimise neural network computations at hyperscale. 3. Hardware Placement & System Integration GPUs may exist as discrete graphics cards connected via high-speed PCIe interfaces, or integrated within System-on-Chip (SoC) designs alongside CPUs. High-end GPU packages often integrate High-Bandwidth Memory (HBM) stacks positioned close to die, reducing latency and increasing data throughput. GPUs allocate larger die area to compute blocks and data pathways, whereas CPUs prioritise control logic, branch prediction and cache optimisation. D. Energy & Environmental Dimension Example: Four Nvidia A100 GPUs (250 W each) used for 12-hour training consume approximately 12 kWh during training phase alone. Continuous inference operations may consume around 6 kWh per day, equivalent to running an AC at full compressor for 4–6 hours daily. Additional server components (CPU, RAM, cooling) add 30–60% overhead power consumption, increasing carbon footprint of AI infrastructure. Large-scale AI training clusters with thousands of GPUs contribute significantly to data centre energy demand, raising sustainability concerns. E. Strategic & Security Dimension GPUs have become critical for AI-enabled defence systems, cybersecurity, financial modelling and weather simulations, elevating them to strategic technology status. Export controls by U.S. on advanced GPUs to certain countries reflect geopoliticisation of semiconductor supply chains. High concentration of fabrication capacity in East Asia exposes AI infrastructure to geopolitical supply-chain disruptions. F. Critical Analysis GPU dominance accelerates innovation but risks vendor lock-in, limiting open competition and raising entry barriers for startups and sovereign AI initiatives. Energy-intensive AI workloads may conflict with global climate commitments unless powered by renewable energy grids. Dependence on few firms for AI hardware undermines digital sovereignty for developing nations. However, GPU-driven AI advancements contribute significantly to healthcare diagnostics, climate modelling and productivity gains. G. Way Forward Promote diversified semiconductor ecosystems through industrial policy and chip incentives, reducing excessive concentration risk. Encourage open standards and interoperability frameworks to mitigate software lock-in effects of proprietary platforms like CUDA. Mandate Green Data Centre norms, integrating renewable energy and efficiency benchmarks for AI compute clusters. Strengthen global antitrust scrutiny while balancing innovation incentives and competition policy objectives. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers GPU = parallel processor; CPU = sequential complex processor. 1920×1080 display = 2.07 million pixels per frame. Nvidia H100 ≈ 1.9 quadrillion tensor ops/sec (FP16/BF16). Nvidia ≈ 90% discrete GPU market share. A100 board power ≈ 250 W. Practice Question (15 Marks) “Semiconductor hardware, particularly GPUs, has become a strategic pillar of the digital economy.” Examine the technological, economic and geopolitical implications of GPU dominance in the AI era. Switzerland’s President announces Geneva as host of 2027 AI Impact Summit Source : The Hindu A. Issue in Brief Switzerland’s President Guy Parmelin announced that the AI Impact Summit 2027 will be hosted in Geneva, focusing on international law and AI governance. Switzerland positioned smaller and mid-sized countries as collective stakeholders to prevent AI governance from being dominated by U.S. and China, which together account for 70%+ of global AI industry. The UAE is slated to host the 2028 AI Summit, indicating institutional continuity and Global South participation. Relevance GS 2 (International Relations / Global Governance): AI norm-setting; multilateral diplomacy; role of Geneva institutions; India–EFTA TEPA (2024); regulatory divergence risks. GS 3 (Economy / Tech Diplomacy): AI projected $15.7 trillion GDP impact; innovation ecosystems; diversification beyond U.S.–China dominance. B. Static Background Geneva hosts major multilateral institutions including United Nations Office at Geneva, WTO, WHO and ILO, reinforcing its identity as hub for norm-setting and international law. India signed India-EFTA Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) in 2024 with Switzerland, Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein to deepen trade and investment flows. AI governance debates intensified after generative AI breakthroughs (2022 onward), with EU AI Act (2024) and UNESCO AI Ethics Recommendation (2021) shaping normative frameworks. U.S. and China dominate AI patents, venture capital and compute capacity, controlling majority of advanced GPU supply chains and frontier model development. Key Dimensions 1. Geopolitical / Strategic Dimension AI governance increasingly mirrors great-power competition, with U.S. emphasising innovation-led ecosystem and China promoting state-led strategic AI expansion. Switzerland advocates coalition of middle powers (e.g., South Korea, France, Switzerland, India) to balance technological asymmetry. Geneva summit’s focus on international law aspects of AI signals shift from voluntary ethics to legally binding multilateral norms. Hosting sequence (India–Switzerland–UAE) reflects diffusion of AI norm-setting beyond traditional Western power centres. 2. Legal / Normative Dimension Potential agenda: AI accountability, cross-border data governance, liability frameworks, algorithmic transparency and military AI regulation. Geneva’s institutional ecosystem enables embedding AI norms within existing multilateral legal frameworks, reducing fragmentation. Smaller states advocating “good governance for all” echo concerns over concentration of AI infrastructure in few jurisdictions. Risk exists of regulatory divergence if U.S., EU and China pursue competing AI standards regimes. 3. Economic Dimension AI projected to add $15.7 trillion to global GDP by 2030 (PwC estimate); governance frameworks influence investment flows and trade patterns. Post-TEPA 2024, EFTA nations committed to invest $100 billion in India over 15 years, strengthening innovation-led growth pathways. Switzerland aims to consolidate its reputation as AI research and fintech innovation hub, leveraging high R&D intensity (~3%+ of GDP). Middle-power coordination may reduce dependence on U.S.–China supply chains and enhance diversification in AI hardware and software markets. 4. Governance / Institutional Dimension Summit platform encourages capacity building, skill development and best practice sharing, addressing AI readiness gaps among developing states. Multilateral dialogue reduces risk of fragmented AI governance regimes, promoting interoperable standards. Focus on international law suggests exploration of AI within human rights law, humanitarian law and trade law frameworks. Geneva’s credibility as neutral diplomatic ground enhances legitimacy of consensus-building efforts. 5. India’s Strategic Interests India’s leadership in previous AI summit and partnership with Switzerland strengthens its image as bridge between Global North and Global South. Collaboration in AI innovation aligns with India’s domestic initiatives like IndiaAI Mission and Digital Public Infrastructure model. TEPA implementation deepens trade and technology linkages, potentially boosting Indian exports in pharmaceuticals, engineering and IT services. Participation in Geneva summit enhances India’s influence in shaping AI norms aligned with human-centric and inclusive governance approach. D. Critical Analysis While middle-power coalitions promote inclusivity, real power asymmetry persists due to concentration of advanced semiconductors and cloud infrastructure. AI governance risks becoming fragmented if binding rules fail to secure buy-in from dominant AI economies. Smaller states must balance regulatory ambition with innovation incentives to avoid stifling domestic AI ecosystems. However, multilateralisation of AI norms enhances predictability and reduces escalation risks in military AI deployment. E. Way Forward Establish Global AI Governance Forum under UN framework with tiered participation ensuring voice for developing nations. Develop interoperable AI standards harmonising EU, U.S. and Asian regulatory approaches to prevent regulatory arbitrage. Strengthen South–South AI cooperation, including shared datasets, compute infrastructure and skilling initiatives. Promote legally grounded frameworks addressing AI liability, autonomous weapons systems and cross-border data flows. F. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers AI Impact Summit 2027 to be hosted in Geneva, Switzerland. U.S. + China account for 70%+ of global AI industry. India–EFTA TEPA signed in 2024; investment commitment $100 billion over 15 years. Geneva hosts major UN institutions including WTO and WHO. Practice Question (15 Marks) “AI governance is emerging as a new frontier of multilateral diplomacy in a multipolar world.” Discuss with reference to the proposed AI Impact Summit 2027 in Geneva and the role of middle powers in shaping global AI norms. ISRO’s Improved Fire-Detection Algorithm – Tackling Farm Fires & Air Pollution Source : Down to Earth A. Issue in Brief Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has developed a modified satellite-based fire-detection algorithm to better monitor farm fires during rabi harvest season. The improved model addresses under-detection of brief, small-scale stubble-burning events, especially during daytime, previously missed by standard satellite systems. Initiative aligns with anti-air pollution efforts in Punjab, Haryana and NCR, where crop residue burning significantly worsens seasonal air quality. Testing during rabi wheat harvest (April–May 2026) aims to enhance accuracy before the more severe kharif burning season (Oct–Nov). Relevance GS 3 (Environment / S&T / Agriculture): Satellite-based monitoring; 28 million tonnes stubble generation; up to 40% Delhi pollution contribution; emission inventory accuracy; crop diversification challenge. B. Static Background Stubble burning generates an estimated 28 million tonnes of paddy stubble annually in Punjab, Haryana and western UP. Studies attribute up to 40% of Delhi’s peak winter pollution load to farm fires during severe episodes. Monitoring relies on NOAA’s VIIRS and NASA’s Suomi-NPP satellites, using sun-synchronous polar orbits providing limited daily overpasses. Peak burning typically occurs between 1:30 pm–4 pm, when multiple short-duration fires may evade capture due to satellite revisit constraints. C. Key Dimensions 1. Environmental Dimension Crop residue burning releases PM2.5, NOx, CO, and black carbon, aggravating winter smog in Indo-Gangetic Plain. North-westerly winds transport pollutants toward Delhi-NCR during post-monsoon months, intensifying transboundary pollution effects. Undetected small fires cumulatively contribute substantial emissions, distorting pollution source apportionment models. Improved algorithm aims to capture short-lived, low-intensity fires, ensuring comprehensive emission inventory estimation. 2. Technological Dimension Modified algorithm refines scale and timing sensitivity, enabling detection of rapid, fragmented burn events. Uses advanced processing of satellite imagery metadata and thermal anomalies, reducing false negatives. Enhanced monitoring integrates with Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) enforcement mechanisms. Demonstrates use of space-based data analytics for environmental governance innovation. 3. Governance / Administrative Dimension Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) coordinates with Punjab, Haryana and Delhi governments for enforcement. Deputy commissioners and district collectors conduct ground-truthing exercises to verify satellite-detected fire events. CAQM has directed State-specific Action Plans targeting elimination of wheat stubble burning by 2026. Circulars issued to nodal officers cluster farmers for monitoring and compliance tracking. 4. Economic Dimension Farmers resort to burning due to narrow 20–30 day window between paddy harvest and wheat sowing. In-situ Crop Residue Management (CRM) machinery subsidies exist, but high operational costs and logistical constraints persist. Burning remains cheapest and fastest disposal method, reflecting structural mechanisation and labour shortages. Accurate detection may influence incentive disbursal and targeted financial support for alternative residue management. 5. Legal / Policy Dimension Air pollution regulation anchored in Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and Environment Protection Act, 1986. CAQM established via ordinance (2020) and subsequent Act (2021) to enforce compliance across NCR region. Improved detection strengthens legal enforceability by reducing data ambiguity in prosecution cases. Raises balance between punitive action and livelihood-sensitive environmental governance. D. Critical Analysis Satellite-based systems historically undercounted small, short-duration fires, leading to measurement bias in pollution attribution debates. Excessive reliance on punitive measures without systemic agricultural reforms may generate farmer resistance. Technology improves detection, but root causes lie in cropping pattern distortion driven by MSP regime favouring paddy. Without scalable ex-situ biomass markets (bio-CNG, pelletisation), residue management remains economically unattractive. E. Way Forward Integrate satellite analytics with real-time ground IoT sensors for hybrid monitoring architecture. Reform MSP and crop diversification policies, promoting less water-intensive alternatives like maize and pulses. Expand CRM subsidy coverage and ensure last-mile machinery access through cooperative models. Promote biomass-to-energy plants under SATAT and National Bio-Energy Mission to create market value for residue. Combine enforcement with behavioural nudges and direct benefit transfers for compliance. F. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers Estimated 28 million tonnes of paddy stubble generated annually in affected states. Farm fires contribute up to 40% of Delhi’s pollution during peak episodes. Monitoring uses VIIRS sensor on Suomi-NPP satellites. CAQM established in 2021 for NCR air quality management. Practice Question (15 Marks) “Technological solutions alone cannot resolve the farm fire crisis in North India.” Discuss with reference to ISRO’s improved fire-detection algorithm and the structural causes of stubble burning. 1,750 MW Demwe Lower Hydropower Project – 11-Year Extension of Environmental Clearance (Arunachal Pradesh) Source : Down to Earth A. Issue in Brief The 1,750 MW Demwe Lower Hydroelectric Project in Arunachal Pradesh received an 11-year extension of Environmental Clearance (EC) after prolonged litigation before NGT and courts. The project, involving a 162.12 m concrete gravity dam on the Lohit River (tributary of Brahmaputra), had earlier faced judicial setbacks over forest and wildlife concerns. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) granted extension, applying a “zero period” principle to exclude litigation time from EC validity computation. Raises questions about balance between hydropower expansion, biodiversity conservation and procedural environmental safeguards. Relevance GS 1 (Geography): Eastern Himalayas biodiversity hotspot; Brahmaputra basin ecology; seismic vulnerability. GS 3 (Environment / Energy / Security): Hydropower (~46 GW installed); 500 GW non-fossil target; forest diversion (1,416 ha); strategic border infrastructure; climate resilience concerns. B. Static Background Environmental clearance granted originally in February 2010, valid till 2020; later extended via a 2022 notification permitting extensions up to 13 years. Project entails diversion of 1,416 hectares forest land and submergence of approximately 1,589.97 hectares. Located near Kamlang Tiger Reserve and habitat of White-bellied Heron (critically endangered; global population <250). India aims for 500 GW non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030, with hydropower contributing ~46 GW installed capacity (2024). C. Key Dimensions 1. Constitutional / Legal Dimension Governed by Environment Protection Act, 1986, Forest Conservation Act, 1980, and EIA Notification, 2006. “Zero period” excludes litigation time from EC validity; intended to prevent developer prejudice due to judicial delays. NGT earlier struck down project clearances citing procedural lapses and wildlife impact concerns. Raises issue of inter-generational equity and precautionary principle under Article 21 environmental jurisprudence. 2. Environmental Dimension Submergence threatens biodiversity-rich Eastern Himalayas, recognised as global biodiversity hotspot. Impacts riverine ecology of Lohit basin, sediment transport and downstream Brahmaputra hydrology. Proximity to Kamlang Tiger Reserve risks fragmentation of critical wildlife corridors. Large reservoirs alter microclimate, fisheries and seismic vulnerability in tectonically active region. 3. Economic / Energy Dimension 1,750 MW capacity significant for Northeast grid integration and national renewable targets. Hydropower classified as renewable and supports grid stability via peaking power supply. Arunachal Pradesh has estimated 50,000 MW+ hydropower potential, underutilised due to ecological and geopolitical sensitivities. Project delays inflate cost, reduce financial viability and deter private investment in hydropower sector. 4. Governance / Administrative Dimension Repeated litigation reflects gaps in baseline biodiversity assessment and cumulative impact studies. Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) had recommended updated conservation plans, but biodiversity concerns reportedly under-discussed in 2026 review. Extension mechanism risks perception of regulatory dilution if periodic environmental reappraisal is not rigorous. Coordination challenges between Centre, State and statutory bodies (MoEFCC, NGT, NBWL). 5. Strategic / Security Dimension Hydropower projects in Arunachal have strategic value due to proximity to China border and upstream Tibetan river developments. Strengthens India’s hydro-infrastructure presence in Brahmaputra basin amid transboundary river concerns. However, environmental degradation may exacerbate local socio-political grievances in sensitive border state. D. Critical Analysis Extension based on litigation delay (“zero period”) may be procedurally justified but risks bypassing updated environmental realities over 15+ years. Climate change alters hydrological patterns; old impact assessments may not reflect new rainfall variability or glacial melt data. Conservation concerns around White-bellied Heron and tiger habitats highlight inadequacy of species-specific mitigation planning. Yet, hydropower essential for India’s decarbonisation pathway and Northeast economic integration. E. Way Forward Mandate fresh cumulative impact assessment incorporating climate resilience and seismic risk modelling before operationalisation. Implement biodiversity offsets and habitat corridors with independent ecological monitoring authority. Integrate local community consultation under Forest Rights Act, 2006 to ensure participatory environmental governance. Develop basin-level hydropower planning rather than project-by-project approvals to avoid ecological fragmentation. Balance strategic infrastructure needs with precautionary environmental safeguards. F. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers Demwe Lower Project capacity: 1,750 MW. Dam height: 162.12 metres. Forest diversion: 1,416 hectares; submergence: 1,589.97 hectares. Kamlang Tiger Reserve located in Arunachal Pradesh. India hydropower installed capacity ≈ 46 GW. Practice Question (15 Marks) “Hydropower expansion in ecologically fragile regions poses a dilemma between energy security and environmental sustainability.” Discuss with reference to the Demwe Lower Project in Arunachal Pradesh. India’s Soil Crisis – Urea Subsidy, Nutrient Imbalance & Climate Fallout  Source : Down to Earth A. Issue in Brief India’s fertilizer subsidy is projected at ₹1.9 trillion in 2025–26, exceeding the ₹1.5 trillion agriculture budget, crowding out investments in irrigation, research and infrastructure. Of this, ₹1.3 trillion is allocated to urea subsidy alone, with retail prices unchanged for nearly two decades, creating distorted nutrient pricing signals. Cheap urea (≈90% subsidised; 45 kg bag at ₹267) incentivises chronic over-application, degrading soils and increasing greenhouse gas emissions. Soil degradation now poses a combined food security, fiscal sustainability and climate governance challenge. Relevance GS 3 (Economy / Environment / Agriculture): ₹1.9 trillion fertilizer subsidy (FY26); 40% Nitrogen Use Efficiency; N₂O GWP 272× CO₂; import dependence (75% urea); soil organic carbon decline; climate impact. B. Structural Background Agriculture employs ~45% of India’s workforce but contributes only ~15% of GDP, limiting farmer surplus for soil restoration investments. India depends heavily on imports: ~75% for urea, 90% for DAP, 100% for potash, making subsidy bill vulnerable to global shocks. In 2022–23, fertilizer subsidy peaked at ₹2.5 trillion due to global price surge after Russia–Ukraine conflict. Urea consumption may touch 40 million tonnes in FY26, reflecting structural overuse. C. Key Dimensions 1. Economic / Fiscal Dimension Fertilizer subsidy since FY22 exceeds total agriculture budget, diverting fiscal space from crop insurance, R&D and irrigation. Subsidy shields farmers from global price spikes but embeds long-term import dependence and structural fiscal burden. Excess nitrogen use reduces marginal productivity, raising cost per unit yield despite higher application rates. Proposed reform: modest urea price increase with per-acre Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) to neutralise income shock. 2. Environmental / Climate Dimension Plants absorb only ~40% of applied urea due to declining Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE); remainder leaches into groundwater or volatilises. Nitrous oxide (N₂O) released has 272 times global warming potential of CO₂. Soil emissions account for over 20% of agricultural GHG emissions (NITI Aayog, 2026). Agricultural soil emissions rose ~7% between 2011–2019, paralleling a 10% rise in nitrogen fertilizer consumption. 3. Soil Health & Nutrient Imbalance Only ~25% of Indian soils have sufficient Soil Organic Carbon (SOC), critical for nutrient retention and microbial health. Despite overuse of nitrogen, over 90% of soils remain nitrogen-deficient, due to low organic carbon and poor nutrient retention. Micronutrient deficiencies (zinc, iron, sulphur, boron) worsening due to imbalance between N, P and K application. Excess nitrogen reduces crop nutritional quality, lowering micronutrient content in food grains. 4. Policy & Governance Dimension Under Soil Health Card Scheme, soil sampling often inadequate; extrapolation of single sample to entire village reported. Neem-coating of urea and Aadhaar-linked PoS verification reduce diversion but do not correct price distortion. Economic Survey recommends triangulating Aadhaar sales data, PM-Kisan database and crop insurance records for targeted cash transfers. Political reluctance to raise urea prices stems from fear of anti-farmer backlash. 5. Cropping Pattern & Incentive Structure Assured MSP procurement for rice and wheat incentivises cereal cultivation, increasing nitrogen demand. Expansion of irrigation shifts farmers from pulses and oilseeds (low fertilizer need) to cereals (high fertilizer intensity). Ethanol blending policy increases maize cultivation, further reinforcing nitrogen-heavy cropping systems. Urea addiction linked to broader agricultural incentive distortions rather than isolated fertilizer policy failure. 6. Nano Urea Experiment Nano urea (500 ml at ₹225) claimed equivalent to 45 kg granular urea, projected to save ₹20,000 crore annually if 25% replacement achieved. Field study (Punjab Agricultural University, 2024) reported yield decline in rice and wheat with nano urea use. Adoption partly coercive, bundled with granular urea purchases; failed to reduce subsidy burden materially. 7. Import Dependency & Structural Risk Urea imports rose 120% year-on-year (Apr–Nov FY26) amid 3.7% domestic output decline. DAP imports increased 54%, indicating structural—not supplementary—import reliance (FAI data). Import dependence exposes fiscal position to energy price volatility and geopolitical disruptions. D. Critical Analysis Subsidy design distorts relative nutrient prices, embedding structural overuse irrespective of monitoring measures. Cash transfer reliability concerns: not indexed to inflation; tenant farmers often excluded due to informal land tenancy. Fiscal crowding-out limits transformative investments in irrigation, agro-ecology and crop diversification. Soil degradation undermines long-term productivity; declining SOC reduces nutrient holding capacity and yield resilience. Reform politically risky but economically and environmentally unavoidable. E. Way Forward Gradual urea price rationalisation with inflation-indexed per-acre DBT, including tenant farmers via crop insurance or FPO databases. Incentivise balanced fertilization through nutrient-based subsidy alignment across N, P and K. Promote crop diversification away from nitrogen-intensive cereals via MSP reform and assured procurement of pulses/oilseeds. Expand organic carbon restoration through composting, green manuring and natural farming initiatives. Integrate fertilizer reform within India’s Net Zero 2070 pathway, linking subsidy rationalisation to emission reduction targets. F. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers Fertilizer subsidy FY26: ₹1.9 trillion; agriculture budget: ₹1.5 trillion. Urea subsidy component: ₹1.3 trillion. Nitrous oxide GWP: 272× CO₂. Plants absorb only ~40% of applied urea. Urea imports rose 120% (FY26 Apr–Nov). Practice Question (15 Marks) “India’s fertilizer subsidy regime reflects a classic case of fiscal distortion with environmental consequences.” Discuss the economic, ecological and political economy dimensions of urea overuse and suggest reform pathways.