Content MILAN 2026 – Multilateral Maritime Diplomacy and Strategic Significance Restoring Indigenous Fish Stocks in River Ganga through Scientific River Ranching MILAN 2026 – Multilateral Maritime Diplomacy and Strategic Significance Why is in News ? Exercise MILAN 2026 concluded on 25 February 2026 with a high-profile closing ceremony onboard INS Vikrant, marking India’s largest multilateral naval engagement in the Bay of Bengal. The exercise was conducted off the coast of Visakhapatnam, with participation of 42 ships and submarines, 29 aircraft, including 18 foreign warships, reflecting unprecedented scale and expanding Indo-Pacific convergence. Maritime Patrol Aircraft from France, Germany and USA participated, signalling deeper operational engagement between India and extra-regional powers within the framework of MAHASAGAR maritime vision. Relevance GS II – International Relations India and its neighbourhood; Indo-Pacific strategy. Bilateral, regional and multilateral groupings. India as Net Security Provider in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR). Maritime diplomacy under SAGAR and MAHASAGAR. GS III – Internal Security Maritime security challenges (piracy, grey-zone threats, submarine proliferation). Coastal security and Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA). Role of defence forces in safeguarding SLOCs. Static Background Evolution and Strategic Context Initiated in 1995 at Port Blair, MILAN began as a modest biennial gathering of regional navies and evolved into a flagship multilateral platform showcasing India’s maritime leadership in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR). The Indian Ocean carries nearly 80% of global seaborne oil trade and about 40% of global container traffic, making maritime stability central to global energy security and international supply chains. India conducts approximately 95% of its trade by volume through sea routes, while importing nearly 85% of crude oil, underscoring strategic dependence on secure Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs). Key Features of Milan 2026 Harbour Phase The Harbour Phase included Subject Matter Expert Exchanges (SMEE), the International Maritime Seminar, and MOYO interactions, strengthening doctrinal alignment, professional networking, and confidence-building among participating navies. Cross-deck visits, cultural exchanges and sports engagements complemented operational discussions, reinforcing India’s use of naval diplomacy as soft power instrument within the broader Indo-Pacific outreach strategy. Sea Phase The Sea Phase involved high-intensity drills in Integrated Air Defence, Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW), Maritime Interdiction Operations, and coordinated surface strikes, validating interoperability across diverse naval platforms. Live firings, anti-air exercises and cross-deck flying operations enhanced real-time coordination, mission planning capability and collective readiness for contingencies including maritime security threats and HADR operations. Overview I. Strategic & Security Dimension MILAN reinforces India’s aspiration to act as a Net Security Provider in the Indian Ocean Region, balancing expanding China’s PLAN deployments while promoting cooperative maritime security without formal alliance structures. Enhanced Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) through shared surveillance practices improves detection of piracy, trafficking and grey-zone threats, strengthening deterrence and rapid response mechanisms in the Bay of Bengal. Interoperability drills improve communication compatibility, logistics at sea and coordinated combat capability, critical during regional crises such as cyclones, natural disasters and non-traditional maritime security challenges. II. Governance & Diplomatic Dimension MILAN operationalises India’s maritime doctrines including SAGAR and MAHASAGAR, transforming strategic vision into structured engagement mechanisms that build trust among regional and extra-regional naval powers. By integrating European and Indo-Pacific navies, the exercise reflects India’s strategy of inclusive multilateralism, avoiding bloc politics while reinforcing a rules-based maritime order anchored in UNCLOS principles. III. Economic Dimension Securing Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs) ensures uninterrupted energy flows and trade, stabilising India’s external sector and reinforcing investor confidence in the Indo-Pacific maritime corridor. Maritime security cooperation strengthens India’s Blue Economy ambitions, including offshore energy exploration, fisheries governance and sustainable marine resource utilisation aligned with long-term developmental priorities. IV. Technological & Defence Modernisation Conducting the closing ceremony onboard INS Vikrant, commissioned in 2022, symbolises India’s indigenous aircraft carrier capability and progress under Atmanirbhar Bharat in defence manufacturing. Advanced ASW and integrated air defence drills reflect adaptation to emerging threats such as submarine proliferation and aerial surveillance challenges in an increasingly contested Indo-Pacific maritime theatre. Challenges India currently operates one aircraft carrier, with defence expenditure hovering around ~2% of GDP, limiting rapid maritime capacity expansion amid intensifying regional competition. Expanding Chinese naval footprint, including submarine deployments and overseas bases, increases strategic pressure in the IOR, necessitating sustained operational readiness and alliance diversification. Institutional gaps in maritime policymaking and limited civilian awareness constrain comprehensive integration of naval strategy with economic planning and coastal infrastructure development. Way Forward Fast-track decision on IAC-2, strengthen Andaman & Nicobar Command, and deepen integration of maritime strategy within national security architecture to consolidate India’s Indo-Pacific leadership role. Expand Information Fusion Centre – IOR partnerships, leverage AI-enabled maritime surveillance and enhance undersea domain awareness to counter emerging asymmetric and grey-zone threats. Institutionalise MILAN as a premier annual maritime forum, synchronising it with ASEAN-led mechanisms to reinforce cooperative security and stable multipolar maritime governance. Prelims Pointers MILAN started in 1995 at Port Blair. MILAN 2026 saw participation of 42 ships, 29 aircraft, 18 foreign warships. INS Vikrant commissioned in 2022. Exercise conducted in Harbour Phase and Sea Phase format. MAHASAGAR is a maritime security vision, not a treaty or organisation. Practice Question   Exercise MILAN 2026 reflects India’s maritime assertiveness and commitment to a rules-based Indo-Pacific order. Analyse its strategic and economic significance.(250 Words) Restoring Indigenous Fish Stocks in River Ganga through Scientific River Ranching Why in news? Under the Namami Gange Programme, 205.5 lakh indigenous fish seeds were released through 169 river ranching programmes (2017–2025) by ICAR–Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, marking a decade of scientific riverine restoration. India became the world’s top inland capture fisheries producer (1.89 million tonnes annually), alongside first-ever scientific estimation of riverine catches, including 15,134 tonnes (Mahanadi) and 18,902 tonnes (Krishna). Relevance GS Paper III – Environment & Biodiversity Riverine ecosystem restoration. Biodiversity conservation and genetic integrity. SDG 14 and sustainable fisheries governance. Conceptual foundation What are riverine fisheries? Riverine fisheries refer to capture fisheries in flowing freshwater ecosystems, dependent on natural recruitment, seasonal flooding cycles, habitat connectivity and ecological flow regimes rather than artificial feed-based production systems. They are open-access common property resources, making regulation difficult and exposing stocks to overfishing, pollution stress and habitat fragmentation from dams and embankments. What is river ranching? River ranching is a scientific stock enhancement strategy involving release of hatchery-reared native fish fingerlings into natural rivers to rebuild depleted populations while preserving ecological balance and genetic purity. It differs from aquaculture because fish are not harvested in captivity; instead, ranching strengthens natural recruitment, spawning biomass and long-term sustainability of wild fisheries. Effective ranching requires wild broodstock collection, genetic screening, size-appropriate stocking (10–15 cm; 100–120 g) and post-release monitoring to prevent maladaptation or ecological imbalance. Ecological background of the Ganga basin The Ganges supports high freshwater biodiversity, including migratory and endemic fish species, and sustains millions of small-scale fishing households across five major riparian states. Decline in native stocks resulted from pollution load, altered environmental flows, sediment changes, overfishing and habitat fragmentation, especially downstream of barrages such as Farakka. Scale and design of intervention Between 2017 and 2025, 205.5 lakh indigenous seeds were released across ecologically sensitive stretches, prioritising native species restoration and genetic integrity safeguards. Of 169 interventions, distribution was West Bengal (68%), Bihar (17%), Uttar Pradesh (9%), Jharkhand (5%), Uttarakhand (1%), reflecting ecological vulnerability and livelihood dependence. Fingerlings were reared under controlled hatchery conditions, enhancing survival rates and ensuring adaptation before release into natural riverine habitats. Species conservation and genetic innovation Target species included Indian Major Carps (IMCs), Mahseer, native catfishes, Chitala and freshwater scampi, addressing both ecological keystone roles and commercial importance. In 2025, artificial breeding of hilsa using cryopreserved milt enabled release of 3.82 lakh adults upstream of Farakka, with 54.91 lakh fertilised eggs, 8.06 lakh spawn and 6031 tagged fish. Measurable ecological and economic gains Landings of Indian Major Carps increased significantly, with Prayagraj recording 24.7% growth and Varanasi 41% growth, indicating positive recruitment and survival outcomes. Reservoir productivity increased from 20 to 150 kg/ha/year, while wetland productivity rose from 600 to 1,600 kg/ha/year, culminating in National Reservoir Fisheries Management Policy Guidelines (2025). Inland capture fisheries production reached 1.89 million tonnes annually, strengthening rural livelihoods and protein security. Governance and policy dimension River ranching operates within the broader framework of the Namami Gange Programme, integrating ecological restoration with livelihood enhancement and pollution abatement measures. The Indian Inland Fisheries Informatics (INNF) platform integrates Web-GIS, CPCB water-quality data and machine learning tools to map aquatic suitability zones and hypoxic risk areas. Sustainable management protocols were developed for estuaries including Hooghly-Matlah, Rushikulya, Mandovi-Zuari and Netravathi-Gurupur, strengthening ecosystem-based fisheries governance. Environmental and climate dimension Emphasis on wild broodstock sourcing and genetic integrity preservation prevents invasive risks and gene dilution associated with indiscriminate hatchery stocking. Restoration of trophic balance enhances resilience against climate variability, reduced flows and temperature-induced stress, supporting long-term ecological stability of the basin. Social and livelihood dimension Riverine fisheries provide income to marginalised communities lacking alternative assets; scientific ranching enhances stock availability without displacing traditional fishing practices. Public participation during ranching events improved awareness, stakeholder engagement and acceptance of sustainable fishing norms. Advanced analytical perspective Ranching represents a shift from production-centric fisheries policy to ecosystem-based adaptive management, aligning with SDG 14 and biodiversity conservation commitments. However, stocking without parallel fishing regulation, environmental flow enforcement and pollution control risks short-term gains without structural sustainability. Genetic monitoring and tagging (e.g., 6031 hilsa tagged) reflect movement toward evidence-driven fisheries governance, reducing uncertainty in open-water stock management. Challenges Open-access exploitation and illegal gears undermine stock enhancement gains in absence of strong co-management frameworks and seasonal fishing bans. Persistent industrial effluents, urban sewage and hydrological alterations continue to constrain spawning success and habitat connectivity. Way forward Institutionalise community-based co-management models, strengthen enforcement of fishing regulations and integrate ranching with ecological flow restoration strategies. Expand telemetry tagging, AI-based stock assessment and real-time water-quality analytics under INNF, enabling adaptive decision-making and climate-resilient fisheries governance. Align river ranching with basin-wide ecological restoration, ensuring that biodiversity conservation and livelihood security progress simultaneously. Prelims pointers 205.5 lakh seeds released (2017–2025) under Namami Gange. 169 river ranching interventions conducted. Inland capture fisheries production: 1.89 million tonnes annually. Hilsa restoration involved 3.82 lakh adults and 6031 tagged fish. Reservoir productivity rose from 20 to 150 kg/ha/year. Practice Question Scientific river ranching under the Namami Gange Programme illustrates the integration of ecological restoration with livelihood security. Critically examine.(250 Words)

Content Balancing faith, dignity and constitutional rights India’s recent defence surge is not a sign of militarism. It is a sign of maturity Balancing faith, dignity and constitutional rights Why in news? The Supreme Court of India is hearing final arguments in review petitions challenging its 2018 judgment in Indian Young Lawyers Association vs State of Kerala, which permitted entry of women of all ages into Sabarimala Temple. The matter stands referred to a nine-judge Bench to reconsider the scope of the Essential Religious Practices (ERP) doctrine, denominational autonomy under Articles 25–26, and the proposed anti-exclusion test centred on dignity. Relevance GS II – Polity & Constitution Fundamental Rights: Articles 14, 15, 17, 21, 25, 26. Doctrine of Essential Religious Practices (ERP). Judicial review and constitutional morality. Scope of denominational autonomy vs individual rights. GS II – Governance Role of Supreme Court in social reform. Transformative constitutionalism and institutional legitimacy. Centre–State interface in religious endowments regulation. GS I – Society Gender justice and religious practices. Intersection of faith, identity and constitutional equality. Practice Question   The Sabarimala review petition raises fundamental questions about the balance between denominational autonomy and individual dignity. Critically analyse in the context of Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution.(250 Words) Constitutional scheme of religious freedom Article 25: Individual autonomy Article 25(1) guarantees freedom of conscience and the right to profess, practise and propagate religion, subject to public order, morality, health and other fundamental rights. Article 25(2) explicitly permits social reform and state intervention, indicating that religious freedom is not absolute but embedded within transformative constitutional goals. Article 26: Denominational rights Article 26 protects religious denominations’ rights to manage their own affairs in matters of religion, own property and administer institutions. However, these rights remain subject to public order, morality and health, creating inherent tension between collective autonomy and individual equality claims. The Sabarimala dispute: factual matrix A long-standing custom barred women aged 10–50 years from entering Sabarimala, citing the celibate nature of Lord Ayyappa and denominational identity of devotees. Petitioners argued the exclusion violated Articles 14 (equality), 15 (non-discrimination), 17 (abolition of untouchability) and 25, asserting that biological attributes cannot justify exclusion in a constitutional democracy. 2018 judgment: core findings (4:1 majority) The majority held that Ayyappa devotees did not constitute a separate religious denomination, weakening protection under Article 26. Exclusion of women aged 10–50 was declared unconstitutional as it violated women’s Article 25(1) rights and offended principles of constitutional morality and gender equality. Rule 3(b) of the Kerala Hindu Places of Public Worship Rules, 1965 was struck down as ultra vires the parent statute guaranteeing temple access to all classes of Hindus. Justice Indu Malhotra’s dissent The dissent emphasised judicial restraint in theological matters, arguing that courts should not ordinarily interfere in practices claimed as essential religious customs unless they violate explicit constitutional prohibitions. It stressed harmonisation of rights, cautioning that generic equality principles cannot automatically override denominational autonomy in matters intrinsically religious. The Essential Religious Practices (ERP) doctrine Origin and evolution The ERP doctrine originated in Sastri Yagnapurushadji vs Muldas Bhudardas Vaishya (1966) , empowering courts to determine whether a practice is essential to religion before granting constitutional protection. ERP effectively allows courts to engage in theological scrutiny, assessing scriptural centrality and doctrinal necessity. Structural limitations Courts lack institutional capacity for theological fact-finding, as constitutional adjudication does not involve extensive oral evidence or doctrinal consensus-building. ERP blurs the secular–religious boundary, making courts arbiters of faith rather than interpreters of constitutional values. The anti-exclusion test Conceptual shift Justice D.Y. Chandrachud proposed an anti-exclusion test, shifting inquiry from doctrinal essentiality to whether a practice systematically excludes individuals in a manner impairing dignity or access to basic goods. The test defers to religious autonomy regarding doctrine but subjects outward exclusionary effects to constitutional scrutiny. Constitutional grounding Unlike ERP, anti-exclusion anchors adjudication in Articles 14, 15 and 21, focusing on dignity and equal moral membership rather than scriptural authenticity. Comparative doctrinal tension ERP prioritises denominational autonomy and doctrinal preservation, potentially subordinating individual equality. Anti-exclusion prioritises individual dignity and substantive equality, ensuring that religious freedom does not legitimise structural discrimination. The core constitutional dilemma lies in reconciling Article 26 group rights with the transformative promise of Articles 14 and 21. Broader constitutional implications The nine-judge Bench’s ruling will influence disputes such as Dawoodi Bohra excommunication practices and Parsi women’s rights after interfaith marriage, shaping India’s religious freedom jurisprudence. The decision may redefine Indian secularism from passive non-interference toward transformative constitutionalism, where dignity structures limits on faith-based practices. Governance and social dimension The 2018 verdict triggered widespread protests in Kerala, reflecting deep intersections between religion, identity politics and constitutional authority. Judicial intervention in religious domains risks perceptions of cultural overreach, demanding careful articulation of constitutional morality to preserve legitimacy. Advanced analytical perspective The case tests whether Indian secularism embodies principled equidistance or reformist intervention when tradition conflicts with gender justice. Placing dignity at the centre reinforces the individual as the primary constitutional unit, limiting collective claims that produce structural exclusion. However, excessive judicial activism risks undermining religious pluralism and raising separation-of-powers concerns in a diverse society. Challenges Determining “dignity impairment” under anti-exclusion may still require contextual understanding of religious meaning, indirectly reintroducing theological engagement. Reconciling transformative equality with preservation of plural traditions remains an enduring jurisprudential challenge. Way forward Develop a structured proportionality framework balancing religious autonomy, equality and dignity, avoiding ad hoc doctrinal shifts. Encourage legislative dialogue and stakeholder consultation to complement judicial reform and enhance social legitimacy. Anchor adjudication in constitutional morality, substantive equality and calibrated restraint, preserving both faith autonomy and individual rights. Prelims pointers 2018 Sabarimala verdict delivered by 4:1 majority. Women aged 10–50 years were earlier excluded. ERP doctrine evolved in 1966. Matter referred to a nine-judge Bench for authoritative interpretation. India’s recent defence surge is not a sign of militarism. It is a sign of maturity Why in news? The Union Budget 2026–27 allocated approximately ₹6.81 lakh crore (~$81–82 billion) to defence, triggering debate on whether rising expenditure reflects militarism or calibrated strategic correction. Commentary by Shashi Tharoor argues that enhanced allocations strengthen credible deterrence, not expansionist intent, especially amid Indo-Pacific instability. Relevance GS III – Security Defence preparedness and deterrence. Two-front challenge (China–Pakistan). Maritime security in Indo-Pacific. Nuclear doctrine: No First Use. GS II – Governance & IR Civilian supremacy and democratic oversight. India’s role in multipolar Indo-Pacific. Strategic autonomy and deterrence diplomacy. Practice Question Rising defence allocations in India reflect strategic correction rather than militarism. Examine in the context of India’s security environment and democratic framework.(250 Words) Conceptual foundation What is militarism? Militarism denotes excessive prioritisation of military instruments in national policy, disproportionate defence-to-GDP spending, coercive posture, and weakening of civilian supremacy over armed forces. It is often associated with expansionist ambitions, frequent use of force externally, and securitisation of domestic politics. What is strategic maturity? Strategic maturity implies calibrated force modernisation aligned with threat perception, fiscal sustainability, technological autonomy and geopolitical responsibilities. It integrates defence preparedness with diplomacy, economic resilience and multilateral engagement rather than privileging force projection. Budgetary context: scale and structure Allocation and capital push Defence allocation stands at ~₹6.81 lakh crore, with a substantial rise in capital outlay (~20% increase) to accelerate modernisation of platforms, surveillance systems and indigenous production. Nearly 75% of capital procurement earmarked for domestic industry, reinforcing Atmanirbhar Bharat in defence manufacturing. Comparative perspective Defence expenditure remains around ~2% of GDP, lower than the United States (~3.5%) and far below China’s absolute outlay. India accounts for roughly 3–4% of global military expenditure (SIPRI estimates), compared to the U.S. (~39%) and China (~13%). Strategic environment driving the surge Continental security challenges Post-2020 Galwan Valley clash, India accelerated infrastructure, ISR capability and high-altitude logistics preparedness along the LAC. Ongoing cross-border tensions with Pakistan require sustained readiness under potential two-front contingency scenarios. Maritime imperatives The People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) fields over 370 battle force ships, expanding presence in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR). With ~95% of India’s trade by volume and ~85% crude imports moving via sea lanes, maritime capability is linked to economic survival. Induction of INS Vikrant strengthens sea-control capability rather than expeditionary militarism. Deterrence versus militarism Logic of deterrence Deterrence raises the cost of aggression, preventing miscalculation and preserving peace through credible capability rather than active use of force. Underinvestment historically produced strategic vulnerabilities, whereas calibrated modernisation stabilises regional balance. Defensive doctrine India follows a No First Use nuclear doctrine and maintains minimum credible deterrence, reinforcing non-expansionist strategic intent. India has not pursued territorial expansion or military interventions beyond immediate security concerns. Institutional and governance reforms Structural integration Creation of Chief of Defence Staff (2019) and movement toward theatre commands enhance jointness, efficiency and integrated planning. Defence exports increased from ~₹1,500 crore (2016–17) to over ₹21,000 crore (2023–24), indicating industrial capability growth. Democratic safeguards Firm civilian control over armed forces, parliamentary scrutiny of budgets and absence of coup history distinguish India from militarist states. Economic and technological dimension Industrial spillovers Defence modernisation stimulates domestic production in aerospace, electronics, AI, drones and advanced materials, strengthening technological self-reliance. Defence corridors in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu aim to build integrated manufacturing ecosystems. Fiscal prudence concerns High revenue expenditure, including pensions, may constrain capital modernisation unless reforms improve efficiency and procurement timelines. Advanced analytical perspective Multipolar Indo-Pacific In a shifting global order, credible military capability strengthens diplomatic leverage within forums such as Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, BRICS, and G20. Strategic maturity balances deterrence with sustained multilateral engagement and economic growth. Transformative realism Defence surge represents correction of historical underinvestment rather than departure from restraint. Mature states invest in security proportional to threats while maintaining normative commitment to international law and cooperative security. Risks and criticisms Capability gaps Fighter squadron strength remains below sanctioned 42 squadrons, currently around 30–32, indicating persistent airpower constraints. Procurement delays and bureaucratic bottlenecks may dilute the effectiveness of increased allocations. Narrative risks Over-securitisation of public discourse may blur distinction between national security needs and political rhetoric. Way forward Capability-based planning Shift from reactive procurement to long-term capability planning, emphasising cyber, space, AI and maritime surveillance. Institutional deepening Expedite theatre command implementation and logistics integration to optimise resource utilisation. Balanced grand strategy Maintain defence spending within sustainable fiscal limits while strengthening indigenous R&D and export competitiveness. Prelims pointers Defence allocation 2026–27: ~₹6.81 lakh crore. Defence expenditure: ~2% of GDP. India follows No First Use doctrine. CDS created in 2019. Defence exports crossed ₹21,000 crore (2023–24).

Content Rajasthan Scraps Two-Child Norm for Local Body and Panchayat Elections After Three Decades Eurasian Diving Duck’s Presence in Kaziranga National Park Triggers Climate Change Concern How Are Indian Firms Training Large Language Models (LLMs)? What Are Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) Technologies? Temperature Spikes Lead to Change in El Niño Labelling Tigers Are Behaving Differently: State of India’s Environment Report 2026 SOE 2026: Extinction Tracker — Anthropocene and Accelerating Biodiversity Loss Rajasthan scraps two-child norm for local body, panchayat polls after three decades A. Issue in Brief Ahead of civic polls, the Rajasthan Cabinet approved removal of the two-child norm that disqualified individuals with more than two children from contesting panchayat and municipal elections. The restriction, introduced in 1995 under the Bhairon Singh Shekhawat government, will be amended through changes to the Rajasthan Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 (Section 19) and Rajasthan Municipalities Act, 2009 (Section 24). The State cited declining fertility rates — from 3.6 (1991–94) to 2.0 currently — as justification for repeal. Relevance GS II – Polity & Constitution Articles 243F & 243V: State power to prescribe disqualification for local bodies. Articles 14 & 21: Equality and reproductive autonomy. Judicial precedent: Javed vs State of Haryana (2003). Tension between social reform and individual rights. B. Static Background The two-child norm was adopted by several States in the 1990s as a population control measure linked to local governance eligibility. The Supreme Court in Javed vs State of Haryana upheld similar provisions in Haryana, ruling that disqualification did not violate fundamental rights. India’s Total Fertility Rate (TFR) declined to 2.0 (NFHS-5, 2019–21), below replacement level (2.1). Rajasthan’s TFR has also fallen significantly over the past three decades, reflecting demographic transition. C. Key Dimensions 1. Constitutional & Legal Dimension Disqualification criteria relate to Article 243F (Panchayats) and Article 243V (Municipalities), allowing States to prescribe eligibility conditions. Critics argue the norm indirectly infringed Article 14 (equality) and Article 21 (reproductive autonomy) by penalising personal choices. Removal signals shift toward aligning electoral eligibility with contemporary demographic realities. 2. Demographic Context India has entered the late demographic transition phase, with declining fertility and increasing median age. With TFR at 2.0, population stabilisation policies are moving from coercive norms to rights-based family planning approaches. 3. Governance & Democratic Principles Disqualification sometimes led to concealment of births or abandonment of children to retain eligibility. Removal may broaden political participation at grassroots level. 4. Political & Social Debate Supporters view repeal as recognition of demographic maturity and democratic inclusivity. Critics argue rollback may dilute population stabilisation messaging amid national debates on demographic balance. 5. Comparative State Experience States such as Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha earlier implemented similar norms; some later diluted or repealed them. Evidence suggests such norms had limited impact on fertility decline, which is driven more by education, urbanisation and women’s empowerment. D. Critical Analysis Population Control vs Rights-Based Approach Coercive eligibility restrictions risk undermining reproductive rights and bodily autonomy. Fertility decline in India largely attributed to female literacy, access to contraception and economic transition, not electoral disqualification rules. Democratic Legitimacy Local self-government institutions under the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments aim to enhance inclusive grassroots representation. Eligibility restrictions unrelated to governance capacity may conflict with democratic ethos. Gendered Impact Women often bore disproportionate burden due to patriarchal family structures controlling reproductive decisions. Norm incentivised son preference in some cases, potentially aggravating sex ratio distortions. E. Way Forward Strengthen voluntary, rights-based population stabilisation strategies focusing on education, maternal health and access to contraception. Promote demographic literacy aligned with evidence-based policy rather than political rhetoric. Ensure local governance reforms prioritise capacity, transparency and accountability, not demographic eligibility. Integrate demographic planning with ageing population preparedness and labour force strategy. F. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers Two-child norm introduced in Rajasthan in 1995. Amendments proposed to Section 19 (Panchayati Raj Act, 1994) and Section 24 (Municipalities Act, 2009). India’s TFR: 2.0 (NFHS-5). SC upheld similar norms in Javed vs State of Haryana (2003). Practice Question (15 Marks) “Coercive population control measures often conflict with democratic and reproductive rights.” Examine the constitutional and socio-demographic implications of the two-child norm in local governance in India.(250 Words) Eurasian diving duck’s presence in Kaziranga National Park triggers climate change concern A. Issue in Brief The 7th Waterbird Census (Jan 4–11, 2026) in Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve recorded the first-ever sighting of the smew (Mergellus albellus) in the Kaziranga landscape. The census documented 105,540 individual waterbirds across 107 species, slightly lower by 6,522 individuals and 17 species compared to 2025. The sighting of the smew, a Eurasian diving duck, signals both wetland health and possible climate-driven range shifts. Relevance GS III – Environment & Biodiversity Wetland ecosystems and migratory bird conservation. Central Asian Flyway dynamics. IUCN threat categories and biodiversity monitoring. GS III – Climate Change Climate-driven range shifts in species. Arctic warming and altered migratory patterns. Wetlands as climate buffers. B. Static Background Kaziranga landscape spans 1,302 sq. km., including Laokhowa and Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuaries, designated Important Bird Areas (IBAs). Kaziranga is globally renowned for the Indian one-horned rhinoceros, but also forms part of the Central Asian Flyway (CAF) for migratory birds. The smew (Mergellus albellus) breeds in the Eurasian taiga and winters in temperate wetlands; global population estimated at ~130,000, declining due to habitat loss and pollution. Waterbird censuses help monitor migratory patterns, wetland productivity, and IUCN-listed species trends. C. Key Findings of Waterbird Census 2026 Species & Population Trends Total count: 105,540 birds across 107 species. 18 species fall under Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened IUCN categories. Top abundant species: bar-headed goose, northern pintail, lesser whistling duck. Wetland-wise Abundance Wetland Bird Count Species Diversity Rowmari Beel 15,661 77 species Donduwa Beel 14,469 71 species Katakhal 4,979 — Sohola 3,612 69 species Khalihamari 3,463 —  Survey covered 166 wetlands across 10 ranges, with participation of 120 enumerators and 50 volunteers. D. Ecological & Climate Analysis 1. Smew as Ecological Indicator Smew prefers fish-rich, sheltered wetlands, indicating healthy aquatic ecosystems. Its arrival suggests floodplain resilience but also reflects north-to-south distributional shifts, potentially driven by warming temperatures. 2. Climate-Driven Range Shifts Migratory birds increasingly alter wintering ranges due to Arctic warming and altered precipitation regimes. Climate change affects food availability, ice cover, and wetland hydrology along flyways. 3. Wetland Vulnerability Kaziranga wetlands face pressures from oil pollution, encroachment, hunting and sedimentation. Floodplain ecosystems require connectivity to maintain nutrient cycles and migratory stopovers. 4. Numerical Dip: Alarm or Variation? Decline of 6,522 individuals and 17 species from 2025 may reflect interannual variability rather than systemic decline. However, long-term trend monitoring is essential to distinguish climate impacts from natural fluctuation. Broader Significance Kaziranga’s IBAs form critical nodes in the Central Asian Flyway, which supports over 30% of global waterbird species. Conservation of refuelling sites is vital as migratory birds depend on sequential wetlands across continents. Climate change could convert some wintering grounds into transitional or unsuitable habitats. E. Way Forward Strengthen wetland protection under Ramsar Convention framework and expand community-led anti-encroachment drives. Integrate climate modelling into migratory bird conservation planning for dynamic flyway management. Enhance monitoring of invasive species and water quality to sustain fish populations supporting diving ducks. Promote transboundary cooperation across Central Asian Flyway nations for coordinated conservation. F. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers Kaziranga landscape area: 1,302 sq. km. 2026 census: 105,540 birds; 107 species. Smew global population: ~130,000. Central Asian Flyway connects Arctic to Indian subcontinent. 18 species recorded fall under IUCN threat categories. Practice Question (15 Marks) “Migratory birds are sentinels of climate change.” Examine how wetland degradation and climate variability are influencing migratory bird patterns in India, with reference to recent findings from Kaziranga.(250 Words) How are Indian firms training LLMs? A. Issue in Brief At the AI Impact Summit, Bengaluru-based startup Sarvam AI released two Large Language Models (LLMs) trained on 35 billion and 105 billion parameters, optimised for Indian languages. Training LLMs domestically faces structural barriers — high GPU costs, electricity demand, limited Indian-language datasets, and capital scarcity. The IndiaAI Mission seeks to reduce entry barriers by subsidising compute access and building shared AI infrastructure. Relevance GS Paper III – Science & Technology Artificial Intelligence and Large Language Models. Compute infrastructure, semiconductor dependence. Mixture of Experts (MoE) architecture efficiency. B. Static Background Large Language Models (LLMs) are deep neural networks trained on massive datasets using GPU clusters, often costing millions of dollars in hardware and power. Frontier global models (e.g., GPT-4-class systems) reportedly use hundreds of billions to over a trillion parameters, requiring enormous compute budgets. IndiaAI Mission (2024) allocated ₹10,372 crore to support compute infrastructure, datasets, skilling and innovation. India hosts 22 scheduled languages, but digital representation remains skewed toward English and a few dominant languages. C. Why is training an LLM on Indian soil with Indian capital a challenge? 1. Compute & Infrastructure Constraints LLM training requires large GPU clusters; high-end GPUs (e.g., H100-class) cost tens of thousands of dollars per unit, with thousands required for large-scale runs. Electricity and cooling costs significantly raise total expenditure, making domestic training capital-intensive. Dependence on imported semiconductors and exposure to export controls limits access to cutting-edge chips. 2. Data Scarcity & Linguistic Imbalance Internet training corpora are dominated by English, European and East Asian languages; Indian languages remain underrepresented. Limited high-quality annotated datasets reduce model performance or require token-heavy translation into English, increasing inference cost. Machine translation pipelines add latency and computational overhead, reducing efficiency. 3. Capital & Business Viability Venture capital in India remains smaller relative to U.S./China AI ecosystems. Absence of immediate monetisation pathways for multilingual LLMs makes large training runs financially risky. Domestic firms lack scale comparable to Big Tech, limiting experimentation capacity. 4. Transparency & Open Ecosystem Gaps While Sarvam AI claims “from–scratch” training and open-source intent, limited availability on global platforms constrains independent validation. Open scrutiny is critical for benchmarking credibility and fostering ecosystem trust. D. How has the IndiaAI Mission subsidised LLM training? Shared Compute Infrastructure Establishment of common compute clusters, lowering entry barriers for startups and research institutions. Subsidised GPU access reduces upfront capital requirement for training runs. Financial & Institutional Support Dedicated funding pool of ₹10,372 crore for AI innovation, including datasets and skilling. Support for academic-industry collaborations (e.g., IIT-incubated ventures like BharatGen, which trained a 17-billion-parameter multilingual model). DPI-based Approach Leveraging India’s Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) ecosystem (Aadhaar, UPI, ONDC datasets) for domain-specific AI applications. Encouraging sector-focused LLMs in education, healthcare, governance, rather than competing immediately with frontier global models. E. Why is Mixture of Experts (MoE) architecture cheaper? Traditional Dense Models In conventional LLMs, all parameters are activated during inference, making each query computationally expensive. Larger parameter counts proportionally increase compute demand and inference cost. MoE Architecture Advantage Mixture of Experts (MoE) activates only a subset of parameters (“experts”) per query. Reduces active compute requirement, lowering energy consumption and latency. Enables models with large total parameters to operate at cost closer to smaller models. Cost & Efficiency Gains MoE significantly reduces training and inference expenditure, maintaining output quality while optimising resource usage. Particularly suited for resource-constrained ecosystems like India, where compute cost sensitivity is high. F. Critical Analysis Strategic Trade-offs Smaller parameter models (e.g., 105B vs trillion-parameter frontier models) may offer contextual alignment but lack depth of global paid models. Focusing on accuracy and alignment for Indian context may be strategically wiser than racing for scale. Digital Sovereignty Imperative Training on Indian soil enhances data sovereignty, linguistic inclusion and geopolitical autonomy. Dependence on foreign LLM APIs risks economic outflows and regulatory vulnerability. Ecosystem Risks Subsidies without market-driven use cases risk inefficient capital allocation. Overemphasis on foundational models may neglect applied AI layers where economic returns are faster. G. Way Forward Expand subsidised GPU clusters with long-term semiconductor ecosystem strategy under India Semiconductor Mission. Invest in high-quality multilingual corpora across 22 scheduled languages, including low-resource dialects. Encourage modular AI stack: smaller efficient LLMs + domain-specific fine-tuning. Promote open benchmarking and peer validation to build global credibility. Align AI compute strategy with renewable energy expansion to reduce training carbon footprint. H. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers LLMs trained using GPU clusters. IndiaAI Mission allocation: ₹10,372 crore. MoE activates only fraction of parameters during inference. Sarvam AI models: 35B & 105B parameters. BharatGen model: 17B parameters. Practice Question (15 Marks) “Building foundational AI models within India is essential for digital sovereignty but economically challenging.” Discuss the structural constraints in domestic LLM training and evaluate how policy interventions like the IndiaAI Mission can bridge the gap.(250 Words) What are carbon capture and utilisation technologies? A. Issue in Brief Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) technologies capture CO₂ from industrial sources or air and convert it into fuels, chemicals, building materials or polymers, embedding carbon into economic value chains. India is the world’s third-largest CO₂ emitter, with emissions concentrated in power, cement, steel and chemicals — sectors classified as hard-to-abate. Scaling CCU in India faces three major risks: cost competitiveness, infrastructure gaps, and regulatory uncertainty, limiting investor confidence and market demand. Relevance GS III – Environment & Climate Change Industrial decarbonisation in hard-to-abate sectors. India’s Net Zero target (2070). Circular carbon economy. GS III – Economy & Industry Cement and steel emissions (~15% global CO₂). Green hydrogen integration. Cluster-based industrial deployment. B. Static Background Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): CO₂ captured and permanently stored underground. Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU): CO₂ captured and reused as industrial input. India’s Net Zero target: 2070. Global CO₂ emissions exceed 37 billion tonnes annually. Cement and steel sectors together account for nearly 15% of global CO₂ emissions. India’s Draft CCUS Roadmap (2030) by the Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas identifies industrial clusters suitable for deployment. C. How can CCU reduce carbon dioxide emissions? 1. Industrial Emission Abatement Captures CO₂ from point sources (cement kilns, steel furnaces, refineries) before atmospheric release. Particularly relevant for process emissions (e.g., limestone calcination in cement), where electrification alone cannot eliminate CO₂. 2. Carbon as Feedstock Converts CO₂ into synthetic fuels (e-methanol), urea, polymers, lightweight concrete blocks, olefins, reducing fossil feedstock demand. When combined with green hydrogen, CO₂-derived fuels can close the carbon loop in hard-to-electrify sectors like aviation. 3. Bio-CCU and Circular Economy Integrates with biogas and biomass streams, converting CO₂ into bio-alcohols and specialty chemicals, improving waste valorisation. Enables transition from linear “extract-use-dispose” model to circular carbon economy. D. Global Policy Frameworks EU Bioeconomy Strategy Promotes sustainable use of biological resources and supports CCU as part of low-carbon industrial transformation. Links CO₂ utilisation with bio-based materials and industrial decarbonisation targets under EU Green Deal. EU Circular Economy Action Plan (2020) Integrates CCU into circular production systems, reducing reliance on virgin fossil inputs. Encourages eco-design, carbon-neutral materials and life-cycle emissions accounting. Other Global Examples U.S.: Section 45Q tax credits incentivise CCU and CCS deployment. Belgium: ArcelorMittal–Mitsubishi–D-CRBN project converts CO₂ into carbon monoxide for steel production. UAE: Al Reyadah integrates CCU with enhanced oil recovery and chemical production using green hydrogen. E. Where does India stand? Department of Science & Technology has developed R&D roadmap for CCU technologies. Draft CCUS 2030 roadmap identifies sectoral pilots. Industry pilots: Organic Recycling Systems Limited (ORSL) piloting Bio-CCU platform. F. Critical Challenges in Scaling CCU in India 1. Cost Competitiveness CCU remains energy-intensive, raising production costs compared to fossil-derived alternatives. Without carbon pricing or tax credits, CCU products struggle in price-sensitive markets. 2. Infrastructure Readiness Requires industrial clusters, CO₂ transport pipelines, and hydrogen integration, unevenly developed across India. Lack of integrated CCU hubs limits economies of scale. 3. Regulatory & Market Uncertainty Absence of clear certification standards for CO₂-derived products deters investment. No comprehensive carbon pricing or compliance mechanism to create demand pull. G. How can India scale up CCU technology? Policy Incentives Introduce production-linked incentives (PLI) or tax credits for CCU products, similar to U.S. 45Q model. Develop carbon pricing or tradable credit mechanisms to internalise environmental cost. Cluster-Based Deployment Create industrial CCU hubs in steel–cement belts (e.g., eastern India) to enable shared pipelines and hydrogen supply. Integrate CCU into National Hydrogen Mission for green hydrogen-based CO₂ conversion. Standards & Certification Develop national standards for CO₂-derived fuels, polymers and building materials, enabling export competitiveness. Establish lifecycle emissions accounting framework aligned with EU carbon border adjustment norms. Innovation & Public–Private Partnerships Expand DST-funded research testbeds and scale pilot projects to commercial demonstration. Leverage India’s chemical and refinery ecosystem for rapid scale-up. H. Strategic Significance CCU bridges decarbonisation and industrial growth, supporting India’s Make in India and net-zero commitments. Provides pathway for hard-to-abate sectors where electrification alone is insufficient. Aligns with global shift toward circular carbon economy. I. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers CCU ≠ CCS (utilisation vs storage). India’s Net Zero target: 2070. India = 3rd largest CO₂ emitter globally. EU Circular Economy Action Plan: 2020. U.S. 45Q tax credit supports CCU/CCS. Practice Question (15 Marks) “Carbon Capture and Utilisation offers a bridge between industrial growth and climate responsibility.” Discuss its potential and limitations in the Indian context, and outline policy measures needed for scaling CCU technologies. Temperature spikes lead to change in El Nino labelling A. Issue in Brief A study published in Nature Geoscience links the recent global temperature surge (2023–2025) to a combination of anthropogenic climate change and transition from a prolonged La Niña (2020–2023) to El Niño (2023). Earth’s energy imbalance — the gap between incoming solar radiation and outgoing heat — sharply increased in 2022, trapping more heat in the climate system. Scientists estimate nearly three-fourths of the recent energy imbalance increase is attributable to long-term greenhouse gas accumulation combined with ENSO phase transition. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) updated its classification thresholds for El Niño–La Niña events due to rapid ocean warming. Relevance GS I – Geography (Climatology) ENSO (El Niño–La Niña cycle). Sea surface temperature anomalies. Earth’s energy imbalance (W/m²). GS III – Environment & Climate Change Anthropogenic warming + natural variability interaction. Ocean heat absorption (~90% excess heat). Extreme weather intensification. B. Static Background El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a natural ocean–atmosphere cycle in the equatorial Pacific affecting global weather patterns. El Niño: Warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in central/eastern Pacific → raises global temperatures. La Niña: Cooler-than-average SSTs → temporarily suppresses global temperature rise. Earth’s energy imbalance is measured in watts per square metre (W/m²); persistent positive imbalance indicates accumulating heat in oceans. About 90% of excess heat from global warming is absorbed by oceans. C. Key Dimensions ENSO Phase Shift and Temperature Spike Period ENSO Phase Climate Impact 2020–2023 “Triple-dip” La Niña Suppressed surface warming; deeper ocean heat storage 2023–2025 El Niño transition Amplified surface warming; record temperatures   From early 2023, global average temperatures jumped above the long-term warming trend. The unusual three-year La Niña delayed heat release, followed by rapid warming during El Niño onset. Earth’s Energy Imbalance Study estimates ~75% of recent imbalance rise linked to combined human-driven warming and ENSO shift. About 23% of the imbalance attributed specifically to prolonged La Niña dynamics. Slightly more than 50% of warming contribution traced to greenhouse gases from coal, oil and gas combustion. Reclassification of ENSO Events Due to overall ocean warming, NOAA altered SST baselines for declaring ENSO phases. Likely outcome: More events classified as La Niña and fewer as El Niño, because baseline warming shifts temperature thresholds. Reflects climate change altering natural variability parameters. D. Critical Analysis Interaction of Natural Variability and Anthropogenic Forcing ENSO cycles are natural, but baseline warming intensifies their impacts, creating higher temperature peaks during El Niño years. The “triple-dip” La Niña stored heat at deeper layers, releasing it during El Niño, compounding warming. Implications for Climate Modelling Altered ENSO thresholds complicate long-term climate projections and risk misinterpretation of short-term temperature spikes. Climate communication must distinguish between trend (anthropogenic warming) and variability (ENSO-driven fluctuations). Extreme Weather Consequences El Niño increases risks of heatwaves, droughts in India and Australia, floods in South America, and marine heatwaves. Ocean warming intensifies coral bleaching, glacier melt and tropical cyclone intensity. Broader Drivers of Temperature Spike Scientists also examine reduced sulphur emissions from shipping (post-IMO regulations), volcanic activity and solar variability as contributing factors. However, greenhouse gas concentration remains primary driver; CO₂ levels exceed 420 ppm, highest in human history. Indian Context El Niño historically correlates with weak southwest monsoon, impacting agriculture and food inflation. Rising baseline temperatures intensify heatwave frequency, particularly in northern and central India. India’s vulnerability underscores importance of climate adaptation and emission mitigation under its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). E. Way Forward Accelerate decarbonisation to reduce long-term energy imbalance through renewable transition and energy efficiency. Strengthen early-warning systems for ENSO-linked extreme weather, integrating IMD forecasting with disaster preparedness. Enhance ocean monitoring networks in the Indo-Pacific to improve predictive modelling of ENSO–climate interactions. Improve public climate literacy distinguishing natural cycles from anthropogenic trends. F. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers ENSO = El Niño + La Niña cycle in equatorial Pacific. “Triple-dip” La Niña: 2020–2023. Energy imbalance = difference between incoming solar radiation and outgoing heat. ~75% of recent imbalance rise linked to GHG + ENSO shift. NOAA revised ENSO classification thresholds due to ocean warming. Practice Question (15 Marks) “El Niño and La Niña are natural climatic phenomena, yet their impacts are intensifying in a warming world.” Discuss how anthropogenic climate change interacts with ENSO cycles and its implications for global and Indian climate stability. Tigers are behaving differently: State of India’s Environment report 2026 A. Issue in Brief The State of India’s Environment 2026 (SOE 2026) released by the Centre for Science and Environment highlights behavioural shifts in India’s tiger populations linked to ecological degradation and habitat saturation. Between January–June 2025, at least 43 human deaths occurred near tiger reserves (compared to 44 during the same period in 2024), with instances of partial consumption of victims reported. Approximately 40% of tiger habitats across 20 states are shared with nearly 60 million people, intensifying human–tiger interface zones. Relevance GS III – Environment & Biodiversity Human–wildlife conflict dynamics. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Project Tiger and NTCA governance. GS III – Ecology Invasive species (Lantana camara). Habitat fragmentation and carrying capacity. Predator–prey dynamics. B. Static Background India hosts over 3,000 tigers (All India Tiger Estimation 2022), accounting for nearly 75% of the global wild tiger population. The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) oversees Project Tiger (launched 1973) with 50+ tiger reserves. Tiger conservation success has led to population recovery but also territorial saturation within core reserves, pushing dispersal into buffer and revenue lands. Human–wildlife conflict is recognised under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and mitigated via compensation and conflict response protocols. C. Key Dimensions 1. Rising Human–Tiger Interactions Tigers rarely become habitual man-eaters; attacks typically rise when individuals are injured, old, prey-deprived, or forced into proximity with humans. Saturation of core reserves compels dispersing sub-adult tigers into agro-pastoral landscapes, increasing encounter probability. In 2025 (Jan–June), 4 of 43 attacks involved partial consumption, indicating altered feeding responses in select cases. 2. Habitat Transformation and Invasive Species The invasive plant Lantana camara, introduced in the 19th century, now occupies nearly 50% of forest, scrubland and village commons areas. Lantana suppresses native grasses, reducing availability of wild herbivores such as chital and sambar. Dense lantana thickets provide low-visibility, predator-friendly cover, enabling ambush hunting near livestock-grazing zones. 3. Prey Shift: From Wild Ungulates to Cattle Domestic cattle offer higher caloric returns compared to smaller wild prey species. In reserves like Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve and Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve, tigers increasingly utilise lantana-dominated patches outside core zones as refuges and hunting grounds. Compensation mechanisms for livestock depredation may reduce local resentment but inadvertently normalise tiger presence in village economies. 4. Behavioural Ecology Shift Experts note potential loss of innate fear of humans, especially among younger dispersing individuals raised near human-modified landscapes. Ecological overcrowding, fragmentation and anthropogenic pressure create adaptive behavioural responses in apex predators. Such shifts reflect ecological plasticity but increase conflict risk and management complexity. D. Critical Analysis Conservation Paradox Tiger population growth signals conservation success, yet habitat carrying capacity limitations produce ecological spillover effects. Protection-centric strategy without landscape-level habitat expansion risks conflict escalation. Invasive Species Governance Gap Despite ecological threat, lantana management remains fragmented and underfunded. Removal is labour-intensive and requires long-term restoration of native grasses and prey base. Socio-economic Interface Livestock compensation schemes mitigate hostility but may create “human subsidy dependence”, altering predator behaviour. Nearly 60 million people sharing tiger landscapes indicates structural coexistence challenge rather than isolated incidents. Climate and Ecological Stress Climate variability alters prey distribution and water availability, potentially intensifying territorial competition. Fragmented corridors restrict safe dispersal, pushing tigers into peri-urban and agricultural spaces. E. Way Forward Shift from reserve-centric conservation to landscape-level ecological planning, strengthening wildlife corridors and buffer management. Large-scale lantana eradication and grassland restoration to rebuild wild prey base and reduce cattle predation. Community-based coexistence models integrating early warning systems, predator-proof livestock enclosures and rapid compensation delivery. Scientific monitoring of behavioural ecology through camera traps, GPS collars and conflict mapping analytics. Align tiger conservation with sustainable land-use planning, balancing ecological carrying capacity with human settlement expansion. F. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers 43 human deaths (Jan–June 2025) near tiger reserves. 40% of tiger territory shared with 60 million people. Lantana camara occupies ~50% of affected forest landscapes. India hosts ~75% of global wild tiger population. Practice Question (15 Marks) “India’s tiger conservation success has created new ecological and socio-economic challenges.” Examine how habitat degradation and invasive species are altering predator behaviour and suggest measures for sustainable human–wildlife coexistence. SOE 2026: Extinction Tracker — Anthropocene & Accelerating Biodiversity Loss A. Issue in Brief SOE 2026 – Extinction Tracker highlights accelerating species loss globally, with updated data from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. Study in Global Change Biology projects ~8,000 vertebrate species could face unsuitable thermal conditions across 52% of their range under worst-case climate scenarios. IUCN Red List now covers 169,420 species, of which 47,187 are threatened with extinction, signalling systemic biodiversity collapse. Nearly 38% of global tree species and 11.5% of assessed bird species are threatened, reflecting cross-taxa ecological stress. Relevance GS III – Environment & Biodiversity IUCN Red List (169,420 species; 47,187 threatened). Climate–biodiversity nexus. Functional extinction (coral reefs). B. Static Background Anthropocene Epoch: Proposed geological epoch denoting dominant human influence on Earth systems; linked to accelerated extinction rates 100–1,000 times background levels. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992: Global framework for conservation, sustainable use and benefit sharing. Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022): “30×30 Target” — protect 30% land and sea by 2030. IPBES Global Assessment (2019): Warned that 1 million species face extinction risk globally. India hosts ~8% of global biodiversity across 4 biodiversity hotspots. C. Key Dimensions Global Extinction Signals Taxa / Region Key Finding Data Evidence Vertebrates Extreme heat vulnerability 8,000 species at risk; 30,000 assessed Corals Functional extinction Florida reef-builders collapsed Arctic Seals IUCN status downgrade Hooded seal → Endangered Birds Systemic decline 1,256 of 11,185 (11.5%) threatened Trees Silent crisis 38% species threatened Fungi Under-recognised loss 411 at risk out of 1,300 assessed African freshwater fish Habitat + overfishing 26% of 3,200 species threatened D. Critical Analysis Climate–Biodiversity Nexus Extreme heat and altered precipitation regimes shrink thermal niches, especially for amphibians and reptiles with narrow tolerance bands. Arctic warming occurring nearly four times faster than global average undermines ice-dependent species such as seals. Ecosystem Collapse vs Species Loss “Functional extinction” of staghorn (Acropora cervicornis) and elkhorn (Acropora palmata) corals indicates ecosystem service failure, not merely species decline. Coral reefs support 25% of marine biodiversity; collapse disrupts fisheries, tourism and coastal protection. Habitat & Land Use Pressure Agricultural expansion, urbanisation and logging drive tree species extinction; threatened trees now exceed threatened vertebrates combined. Island ecosystems exhibit disproportionate extinction rates due to invasive species and habitat isolation. Governance Deficits Despite CBD commitments, global biodiversity finance gap estimated at ~$700 billion annually. Protected areas often lack effective management and connectivity corridors. Indian Context Species such as the Great Indian Bustard and Gangetic Dolphin remain critically endangered due to habitat fragmentation and infrastructure expansion. India’s climate vulnerability amplifies biodiversity stress in the Himalayas, Western Ghats and coastal zones. E. Way Forward Implement 30×30 Target with ecological corridors and community-led conservation models. Integrate biodiversity accounting into national income frameworks via natural capital valuation. Strengthen climate mitigation to limit warming below 1.5°C, reducing thermal stress on species. Expand Red List assessments for fungi, invertebrates and freshwater taxa to reduce conservation blind spots. Enhance global biodiversity finance through debt-for-nature swaps and blended climate–nature funds. F. Exam Orientation Prelims Pointers IUCN Red List: 169,420 species assessed; 47,187 threatened. Extreme heat may impact 8,000 vertebrate species. 38% of global tree species threatened. African freshwater fish: 26% threatened. Coral functional extinction differs from species extinction. Practice Question (15 Marks) “Biodiversity loss in the Anthropocene represents not only an ecological crisis but a governance failure.” Examine the drivers of accelerating species extinction and suggest policy measures to reconcile development with conservation.