Content

1. India’s labour market shows gains, but challenges persist
2. Mizoram Ginger Mission
3. India’s goods exports climb to $43.6 billion
4. India’s first satellite-tagged Ganges soft-shell turtle released in Kaziranga National Park
5. Rajasthan seeks permanent seat in Bhakra Beas board
6. Hantavirus as a Warning: Why Zoonotic Outbreaks May Become More Common
7. Repurposing Old Thermal Power Plants into Nuclear Sites

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India’s labour market shows gains, but challenges persist

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Why in News?

• National Statistical Office released the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2025, showing stable labour market indicators, rising female participation, improved salaried employment and declining unemployment, while highlighting persistent challenges related to skills, gender gaps and disengaged youth.

Relevance

• GS Paper III: Employment, Inclusive Growth, Human Capital, Skill Development.
• GS Paper II: Social Justice, Women Empowerment.

Practice Question

• “The challenge before India is not merely generating growth, but creating productive and inclusive employment. Discuss in light of the findings of PLFS 2025.”(250 Words)

Static Background

Demographic Dividend

• Demographic dividend refers to accelerated economic growth resulting from a rising share of working-age population, provided adequate education, health, skills and productive employment opportunities are created.

Labour Force

• Labour force includes all persons who are either employed or actively seeking work during a specified reference period.

Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)

• Launched in 2017 by National Statistical Office under Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation to provide regular employment and unemployment estimates.

Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR)

• Percentage of total population that is either employed or unemployed but actively seeking employment.

Worker Population Ratio (WPR)

• Percentage of total population that is currently employed.

Unemployment Rate (UR)

• Percentage of unemployed persons among the labour force.

NEET

• Youth classified as Not in Employment, Education or Training, indicating disengagement from both productive work and skill acquisition.

Formal Employment

• Regular wage and salaried jobs generally offer predictable income, written contracts and social security benefits such as provident fund, insurance and pensions.

Occupational Segregation

• Concentration of specific castes or genders in certain occupations, often reflecting historical social inequalities and barriers to mobility.

Key Findings of PLFS 2025

Headline Labour Market Indicators

• India’s labour market remained resilient in 2025, with LFPR at 59.3%, WPR at 57.4%, and unemployment at 3.1%, indicating broad-based workforce participation and relatively low open unemployment.

Employment Scale

• Approximately 61.6 crore people were employed, including 41.6 crore men and 20 crore women, demonstrating the massive scale of India’s workforce and the importance of sustained job creation.

Youth Unemployment

• Youth unemployment declined to 9.9%, though urban youth unemployment remained elevated at 13.6%, reflecting continued mismatch between educational attainment and labour market opportunities.

Positive Structural Trends

Rising Female Labour Force Participation

• Female labour force participation improved across rural and urban areas, supported by better education, diversification into manufacturing and services, and increasing social acceptance of women’s paid employment.

Shift Toward Formalisation

• Regular salaried employment increased from 22% to 23.6%, while self-employment declined from 58% to 56.2%, signalling gradual movement toward more secure and formal jobs.

Sectoral Transformation

• Agriculture’s share in employment fell to 43%, while manufacturing reached 12.1% and services 13.1%, reflecting structural transformation toward higher-productivity sectors.

Reduced Occupational Segregation

• Younger cohorts show lower caste- and gender-based occupational segregation, indicating that education expansion and social mobility are beginning to improve labour market inclusiveness.

Income Trends

Faster Growth in Women’s Earnings

• Female earnings increased faster than male earnings in salaried, self-employed and casual work, suggesting gradual strengthening of women’s economic participation and bargaining power.

Persistent Wage Gap

• Women still earn only 76% of male wages in salaried jobs, 69% in casual labour, and 36% in self-employment, indicating entrenched discrimination and unequal asset ownership.

Human Capital and Education

Rising Educational Attainment

• Average years of schooling for persons aged 15 and above reached 10 years, reflecting significant expansion of secondary and tertiary education over the past two decades.

Weak Graduate Absorption

• Between 2004 and 2023, roughly 5 million graduates entered the labour market annually, but only 2.8 million secured jobs, highlighting limited high-quality employment generation.

Skill Development Gap

Low Formal Vocational Training

• Only 4.2% of individuals aged 15–59 received formal technical or vocational training, revealing a major deficit in industry-relevant skills.

Skills Improve Employability

• Workforce participation among formally trained individuals is substantially higher, underscoring the strong relationship between skill development and productive employment outcomes.

Gender-Specific Structural Constraints

Unpaid Care Burden

• A large proportion of women remain outside the workforce due to childcare, domestic work and elder care responsibilities, revealing structural gender inequalities.

Time Poverty

• Urban self-employed men work 17.5 hours more per week than women, while salaried men work 7.9 hours more, reflecting the disproportionate unpaid work burden borne by women.

NEET Challenge

Scale of the Problem

• Around 25% of youth aged 15–29 are classified as NEET, representing a significant underutilisation of India’s demographic potential.

Long-Term Risks

• Extended disengagement can reduce skills, productivity and labour market attachment, increasing risks of social exclusion and intergenerational poverty.

Economic Significance

Demographic Dividend Opportunity

• India adds 7–10 million young people to the labour force annually; productive absorption of this cohort is critical to achieving sustained high growth.

Consumption and Savings

• Stable employment raises household incomes, boosts domestic demand and increases financial savings, strengthening macroeconomic resilience.

Productivity Growth

• Formal jobs and better skills improve labour productivity, which is essential for the goal of becoming a developed economy by 2047.

Social Significance

Women Empowerment

• Higher female employment improves household welfare, educational outcomes and nutritional status while enhancing women’s autonomy and decision-making power.

Social Mobility

• Declining occupational segregation enables historically marginalised communities to access more productive and better-paid occupations.

Constitutional and Governance Dimensions

Article 39(a)

• Directs the State to secure adequate means of livelihood for all citizens.

Article 41

• Mandates the State to make effective provision for the right to work, education and public assistance.

Article 42

• Calls for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief.

Government Initiatives Supporting Employment

• Skill India Mission promotes industry-relevant training.
• National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme links training with employment.
• PM Internship Scheme provides work exposure.
• PM Vishwakarma supports traditional artisans.
• Production Linked Incentive Scheme boosts manufacturing jobs.

Key Challenges

Jobless or Job-Poor Growth

• Economic growth has not consistently generated sufficient formal employment, especially for educated youth.

Skill Mismatch

• Educational qualifications often do not align with industry requirements.

Low Female Participation

• Safety concerns, unpaid care work and workplace barriers continue to constrain women.

Informality

• A large share of employment remains outside formal contracts and social security.

Regional Disparities

• Employment opportunities are concentrated in select urban and industrial centres.

Way Forward

Scale Apprenticeships

• Integrate paid apprenticeships with higher education to improve school-to-work transitions.

Expand Care Infrastructure

• Invest in crèches, elderly care and flexible work arrangements to enable women’s participation.

Accelerate Labour-Intensive Manufacturing

• Promote textiles, food processing, footwear and electronics assembly to absorb large numbers of workers.

Strengthen Vocational Education

• Align training curricula with industry demand and emerging green and digital jobs.

Re-engage NEET Youth

• Use targeted counselling, training and employment incentives to reconnect disengaged youth.

Data and Facts for Mains

• LFPR: 59.3%
• WPR: 57.4%
• Unemployment Rate: 3.1%
• Youth NEET Rate: 25%
• Formal vocational training: 4.2%
• Agriculture employment share: 43%
• Manufacturing share: 12.1%

Prelims Pointers

• PLFS is conducted by the National Statistical Office.
• NEET refers to youth not in employment, education or training.
• WPR measures the proportion of employed persons in total population.
• LFPR includes both employed and unemployed persons seeking work.

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Mizoram Ginger Mission

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Why in News?

• Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region launched the ₹189.79 crore Mizoram Ginger Mission to develop a complete value chain for GI-certified pharma-grade ginger, integrating nearly 20,000 farming households into processing, branding and export markets.
• The mission seeks to transform Mizoram into a global hub for premium ginger under the broader Brand North East strategy.

Relevance

• GS Paper III: Agriculture, Food Processing, Value Addition, Export Promotion.
• GS Paper II: Regional Development, Cooperative Federalism.

Practice Question

• “Discuss how value chain development and geographical indication-based branding can enhance farmers’ incomes and promote inclusive growth in India’s North Eastern region.”(250 Words)

Static Background

Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

• Ginger is a tropical rhizome crop used in food, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and cosmetics. India is among the world’s largest producers and exporters of ginger and ginger-derived products.

Oleoresin

• Oleoresin is a concentrated extract containing flavour, aroma and bioactive compounds such as gingerols and shogaols. It is widely used in medicines, beverages and processed foods.

Geographical Indication (GI)

• A GI tag under the World Trade Organization framework identifies products whose qualities are linked to a specific region, enhancing market recognition and premium pricing.

Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs)

• FPOs are legally registered farmer collectives that aggregate produce, improve bargaining power and facilitate access to credit, technology and markets.

APEDA

• Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority promotes export of agricultural and processed food products.

NABARD

• National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development supports rural credit, infrastructure and producer organisations.

ICAR

• Indian Council of Agricultural Research provides research and technology support for crop productivity and quality enhancement.

Value Chain Development

• Value chain development integrates production, storage, processing, branding and marketing to increase farmers’ share in the final consumer price.

Why Mizoram is Ideal for Ginger Cultivation ?

Agro-Climatic Suitability

• High rainfall, well-drained soils and favourable temperatures make Mizoram highly suitable for premium-quality ginger cultivation.

Superior Quality

• Mizo ginger contains 6–8% oleoresin, compared with the global average of around 3%, making it highly valued in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries.

GI-Certified Cultivars

• Region-specific cultivars possess distinctive quality attributes, enabling premium branding in international markets.

NITI Aayog Recognition

• NITI Aayog has described Mizoram as the “Ginger Capital of India”, highlighting its strategic importance.

Mission Architecture

Total Outlay

• Total financial allocation: ₹189.79 crore through convergence of multiple central schemes and institutional support.

Infrastructure Model

• One integrated processing hub and three spoke centres will undertake cleaning, drying, extraction, packaging and quality certification.

Household Coverage

• Nearly 20,000 farmer households will be integrated into a traceable and quality-assured value chain.

Strategic Pillars

• The mission rests on four pillars:
  • Convergence
  • Value Addition
  • Branding
  • Market Integration

Convergence-Based Governance Model

• Ministries involved:
  • Ministry of DoNER
  • Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare
  • Ministry of Food Processing Industries
  • Ministry of Rural Development
• Institutional partners:
  • NABARD
  • ICAR
  • APEDA
  • Private investors

Economic Significance

Price Realisation

• Farmers currently receive only ₹8–15 per kg, whereas processed products can command over ₹500 per kg in global markets.

Income Enhancement

• The mission targets a six-fold increase in farmer value realisation by reducing middlemen and enabling direct market linkage.

Rural Industrialisation

• Processing units will generate local employment in grading, extraction, packaging and logistics.

Export Promotion

• Target markets include South-East Asia, the Middle East and Europe.

Social Significance

Livelihood Security

• Ginger cultivation is a key cash crop for tribal and smallholder farmers in Mizoram.

Women’s Participation

• Processing and aggregation activities can generate substantial employment opportunities for women and self-help groups.

Reduction in Migration

• Improved rural incomes can curb distress migration and strengthen local entrepreneurship.

Link with Government Initiatives

Brand North East

• Assigns one flagship product to each State:
  • Sikkim – Organic State
  • Arunachal Pradesh – Kiwi
  • Tripura – Queen Pineapple
  • Nagaland – Coffee
  • Meghalaya – Lakadong Turmeric
  • Mizoram – Pharma-grade Ginger

PM Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises (PMFME)

• Supports micro food processing units and branding of local products.

One District One Product (ODOP)

• Promotes region-specific agricultural specialisation.

Environmental Significance

Sustainable Farming

• Ginger cultivation in hilly terrains can support diversified agriculture and reduce dependence on low-value shifting cultivation.

Lower Post-Harvest Losses

• Local processing reduces spoilage and waste.

Challenges

Logistics Constraints

• Hilly terrain and weak transport infrastructure increase freight costs.

Quality Standardisation

• Export markets require strict traceability, phytosanitary compliance and residue testing.

Market Volatility

• International demand and prices may fluctuate.

Capacity Building

• Farmers need training in grading, aggregation and quality management.

Critical Analysis

• The mission marks a shift from production-centric agriculture to market-led value chain development. Its success depends on robust farmer institutions, quality assurance, processing infrastructure and sustained private-sector engagement.

Way Forward

• Strengthen FPO governance and cooperative marketing.
• Establish testing laboratories and traceability systems.
• Improve cold chain and transport connectivity.
• Promote global branding of “Mizo Ginger”.
• Facilitate long-term export contracts and e-market access.

Constitutional and Governance Dimension

Article 46

• Directs the State to promote educational and economic interests of weaker sections, including tribal communities.

Article 275

• Provides grants for development of Scheduled Areas and tribal regions, relevant to North East development.

Data and Facts

• Mission outlay: ₹189.79 crore
• Oleoresin content: 6–8%
• Global average oleoresin: ~3%
• Farmer price: ₹8–15/kg
• International value chain potential: ₹500+/kg
• Farmer households covered: ~20,000

Prelims Pointers

Ginger’s botanical name: Zingiber officinale.

• APEDA promotes agricultural exports.
• NABARD supports rural development and FPOs.
• GI tags are protected under the TRIPS framework.

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India’s goods exports climb to $43.6 billion

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Why in News?

• India’s merchandise exports rose by nearly 14% year-on-year to US$43.6 billion in April 2026, despite disruptions arising from the West Asia crisis and higher shipping and energy costs.
• India’s overall trade deficit (goods + services) declined by 30% to US$7.8 billion, reflecting export resilience, diversified markets and robust services earnings.

Relevance

• GS Paper III: External Sector, Trade, Balance of Payments, Export Promotion.
• GS Paper II: International economic relations.

Practice Question

• “India’s export resilience amid global uncertainty reflects both strategic diversification and structural reforms. Discuss the significance of exports in strengthening India’s external sector and economic growth.”(250 Words)

Static Background

Merchandise Exports

• Merchandise exports refer to the export of physical goods such as petroleum products, engineering goods, pharmaceuticals, textiles and electronics, measured on a Free on Board (FOB) basis.

Services Exports

• Services exports include software, business process outsourcing, consulting, tourism, transport and financial services, in which India has a strong comparative advantage.

Trade Balance

• Trade Balance = Exports − Imports. A positive value indicates a surplus, while a negative value indicates a deficit.

Trade Deficit

• A trade deficit occurs when imports exceed exports. It is financed through services exports, remittances, FDI and portfolio flows.

Current Account Deficit (CAD)

• CAD includes the trade deficit plus net invisibles such as services, remittances and investment income. A moderate CAD is generally considered sustainable.

Balance of Payments (BoP)

• The BoP records all economic transactions between residents and the rest of the world, including trade, services, capital flows and reserve changes.

FOB and CIF

• FOB (Free on Board): Includes the value of goods at the exporting port.
• CIF (Cost, Insurance and Freight): Includes transportation and insurance costs to the importing destination.

India’s Major Export Items

• Engineering goods, refined petroleum products, pharmaceuticals, gems and jewellery, electronics, textiles and chemicals constitute India’s core export basket.

Key Export Promotion Institutions

• Directorate General of Foreign Trade regulates trade policy.
• Export Promotion Councils support sector-specific exports.
• Reserve Bank of India monitors external sector stability.

Key Data and Trends

• Merchandise exports (April 2026): US$43.6 billion
• Growth over April 2025: ~14%
• Overall trade deficit (goods + services): US$7.8 billion
• Reduction in overall deficit: 30%
• India’s merchandise exports in FY 2025–26 crossed US$525 billion (approximate official trend estimate).

Drivers Behind Export Growth

Price Effect

• Rising global prices of petroleum products, chemicals and metals increased the nominal value of exports, even where shipment volumes may have grown more modestly.

Market Diversification

• Indian exporters expanded into Africa, Latin America, West Asia and emerging Asian markets, reducing dependence on traditional destinations such as the U.S. and the European Union.

Supply Chain Resilience

• Improved port efficiency, logistics upgrades under PM Gati Shakti and digital customs systems helped maintain export momentum despite geopolitical disruptions.

Strong Services Sector

• Robust software and business services exports offset part of the merchandise trade deficit, reducing pressure on the external account.

Economic Significance

Strengthening External Stability

• Higher exports improve foreign exchange earnings, support the rupee and reduce dependence on volatile capital inflows to finance the current account deficit.

Employment Generation

• Export-intensive sectors such as textiles, gems and jewellery, electronics and pharmaceuticals create substantial jobs, especially for MSMEs and labour-intensive industries.

Manufacturing Competitiveness

• Rising exports indicate progress in integrating India into global value chains and support the Make in India strategy.

Fiscal and Growth Impact

• Export growth stimulates industrial production, logistics demand and tax revenues, contributing to higher GDP growth.

Link with Government Initiatives

Foreign Trade Policy 2023

• Aims to reach US$2 trillion in exports by 2030, emphasising digitisation, district export hubs and reduced transaction costs.

Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme

• Supports domestic manufacturing in electronics, pharmaceuticals, solar modules and other strategic sectors.

PM Gati Shakti

• Integrates infrastructure planning to reduce logistics costs and improve trade competitiveness.

Districts as Export Hubs

• Promotes local products and regional specialisation in international markets.

Global Context

West Asia Crisis

• Conflict in the Gulf and potential disruptions in the Strait of Hormuz increase freight and insurance costs, affecting global trade flows.

Protectionism and Fragmentation

• Rising tariffs, sanctions and supply-chain reconfiguration are encouraging firms to diversify sourcing and production toward countries such as India.

Challenges

High Import Dependence

• India remains dependent on imported crude oil, electronics components and critical minerals, limiting net trade gains.

Logistics Costs

• Logistics costs remain around 8–10% of GDP, higher than many export competitors.

Limited Product Diversification

• A large share of exports is concentrated in a few sectors and markets.

Exchange Rate Volatility

• Rupee depreciation can boost competitiveness but also raises import costs and inflation.

Way Forward

• Expand free trade agreements with strategically important markets.
• Reduce logistics and compliance costs.
• Promote high-value manufacturing and services exports.
• Strengthen export credit and insurance support.
• Diversify into new products, including green technologies and advanced electronics.

Constitutional and Governance Dimension

• Under Article 246 and the Union List, foreign trade and commerce fall under the Union Government’s legislative competence, enabling coordinated national trade policy.

Prelims Pointers

• Merchandise exports cover physical goods only.
• Trade deficit differs from current account deficit.
• FOB excludes freight and insurance costs.
• Services exports are a major strength of India’s external sector.

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India’s first satellite-tagged Ganges soft-shell turtle released in Kaziranga National Park

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Why in News?

• Assam released India’s first satellite-tagged Ganges Soft-shell Turtle (Nilssonia gangetica) in Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve on Endangered Species Day 2026, marking a major milestone in freshwater biodiversity research and evidence-based conservation.
• The initiative was led by the Wildlife Institute of India in collaboration with the Assam Forest Department, with support from the National Geographic Society.

Relevance

• GS Paper III: Biodiversity Conservation, Wildlife Protection, Science and Technology.
• GS Paper I: Geography of Brahmaputra floodplains.

Practice Question

• “Discuss the ecological significance of freshwater turtles and examine how emerging technologies such as satellite telemetry can strengthen biodiversity conservation in India.” (250 Words)

Static Background

Ganges Soft-shell Turtle (Nilssonia gangetica)

• The Ganges Soft-shell Turtle is a large freshwater turtle native to the Ganga, Brahmaputra and Indus river systems, recognised by distinctive arrowhead-shaped markings on its head and adapted to large rivers, reservoirs and floodplain wetlands.

Taxonomic Classification

• Kingdom: Animalia; Phylum: Chordata; Class: Reptilia; Order: Testudines; Family: Trionychidae. Soft-shell turtles possess leathery shells and snorkel-like snouts, enabling efficient swimming and prolonged submergence.

Ecological Role

• As a scavenger and predator, the species feeds on fish, molluscs and carrion, helping remove decaying organic matter and maintaining water quality and nutrient cycling in river ecosystems.

IUCN Status

• The species is listed as Endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List due to habitat loss, sand mining, pollution and illegal harvesting.

Legal Protection in India

• It receives the highest legal protection under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, now reflected under the schedules of the amended wildlife law framework.

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

• This landmark legislation provides for protected areas, species schedules, anti-poaching enforcement and regulation of trade, forming the backbone of India’s wildlife governance.

Satellite Tagging

• Satellite telemetry involves attaching a transmitter that periodically sends location data to satellites, allowing scientists to track migration, home range, nesting and habitat use without repeatedly recapturing the animal.

Kaziranga National Park

• Established as a reserve in 1905 and a national park in 1974, Kaziranga spans 1,302 sq. km and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site famed for one-horned rhinoceros and rich wetland biodiversity.

Freshwater Turtles in Assam

• Assam is globally recognised as a priority landscape for turtle conservation; of India’s eight soft-shell turtle species, five occur in the Kaziranga-Brahmaputra landscape.

Endangered Species Day

• Observed annually on the third Friday of May, the event raises awareness about species facing extinction and promotes conservation action.

Significance of Satellite Tagging

Scientific Monitoring

• Telemetry will generate data on seasonal movement patterns, habitat preferences and dispersal routes, improving understanding of poorly studied freshwater reptiles in dynamic river systems.

Identification of Critical Habitats

• The study can pinpoint nesting beaches, breeding grounds, basking sites and overwintering areas, enabling targeted habitat protection and restoration.

Conservation Planning

• Data will support river-basin management, protected-area zoning and mitigation of threats such as fishing nets, dredging and sand mining.

Climate Change Insights

• Long-term tracking can reveal how altered floods, erosion and temperature changes influence turtle movement and reproductive behaviour.

Importance of Kaziranga for Freshwater Biodiversity

• Kaziranga is not only a megafauna landscape but also a crucial network of channels, oxbow lakes and wetlands supporting turtles, river dolphins, waterbirds and fish.
• The Brahmaputra River floodplain provides diverse aquatic habitats essential for breeding and feeding of threatened reptile species.

Threats to Ganges Soft-shell Turtle

Habitat Degradation

• River regulation, embankments, wetland shrinkage and sand mining destroy nesting sites and alter aquatic habitats.

Pollution

• Industrial effluents, plastics and agricultural runoff reduce water quality and affect food availability.

Illegal Exploitation

• Turtles are poached for meat, eggs and traditional medicine, despite legal protection.

Fishing Bycatch

• Entanglement in nets causes injury and mortality.

Constitutional and Policy Dimensions

Article 48A

• The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife.

Article 51A(g)

• Every citizen has a fundamental duty to protect and improve the natural environment and show compassion for living creatures.

National Wildlife Action Plan (2017–2031)

• Emphasises species recovery, scientific monitoring, community participation and conservation of inland aquatic ecosystems.

Governance and Institutional Significance

• The project reflects collaboration among scientific institutions, State forest departments and international partners, demonstrating how technology strengthens wildlife governance.
• It broadens India’s conservation focus beyond charismatic mammals to lesser-known but ecologically critical freshwater species.

Data and Facts

• Kaziranga area: 1,302 sq. km
• Global prevalence: 1 in 8 women not relevant here; omitted.
• India’s soft-shell turtle species: 8
• Species occurring in Kaziranga landscape: 5
• Legal status: Schedule I
• IUCN status: Endangered

Challenges

Limited Research

• Freshwater turtles remain under-studied compared with mammals, leading to data gaps.

Riverine Development Pressures

• Dredging, hydrological modifications and infrastructure projects threaten habitat integrity.

Weak Awareness

• Public attention and funding for reptile conservation are relatively limited.

Way Forward

• Expand telemetry studies to other threatened freshwater turtles.
• Protect nesting sandbanks and regulate in-stream sand mining.
• Integrate turtle conservation into Brahmaputra basin planning.
• Strengthen community-based monitoring and awareness.
• Develop species recovery plans with long-term funding.

Prelims Pointers

• Nilssonia gangetica is the Ganges Soft-shell Turtle.
• It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
• It is protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act.
• Kaziranga is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Assam.

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Rajasthan seeks permanent seat in Bhakra Beas board

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Why in News?

• Rajasthan has demanded a permanent full-time member in the Bhakra Beas Management Board, arguing that it receives 52.96% of Ravi-Beas waters and that irrigation, drinking water and economic development in western Rajasthan depend heavily on BBMB-managed infrastructure.
• The issue was raised during the 50th anniversary of BBMB, with Rajasthan also advocating real-time monitoring, floating solar, pumped storage and digital water governance to improve transparency and efficiency.

Relevance

• GS Paper II: Federalism, interstate river governance, cooperative federalism.
• GS Paper III: Water resources, irrigation, hydropower, renewable energy.

Practice Question

• “Discuss the role of institutional representation and technological transparency in improving interstate river basin governance, with reference to Rajasthan’s demand for a permanent seat in the Bhakra Beas Management Board.” (250 Words)

Static Background

Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB)

• BBMB is a statutory authority created under Section 79 of the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966, to regulate water releases and hydropower generation from multipurpose projects serving multiple States after the reorganisation of erstwhile Punjab.

Historical Context

• Before 1966, the Bhakra and Beas projects were jointly managed by unified Punjab. Creation of Haryana and transfer of territories to other States necessitated an independent institution to ensure impartial allocation of shared water and power.

Major Projects Managed by BBMB

• BBMB administers Bhakra Dam on the Sutlej, Pong Dam on the Beas, and Pandoh Dam, which diverts Beas waters to the Sutlej basin.

Functions of BBMB

• The Board regulates reservoir operations, water distribution, flood control, canal releases, maintenance of powerhouses and transmission of electricity to partner States according to predetermined shares.

Indus Waters Treaty, 1960

• Under the Indus Waters Treaty, the eastern rivers—Ravi, Beas and Sutlej—were allocated exclusively to India, enabling construction of large storage and canal projects for irrigation and hydropower.

Rajasthan’s Allocation

• Rajasthan was allocated 8.6 Million Acre Feet (MAF) of Ravi-Beas waters, constituting 52.96% of the total utilisable share, making it the largest beneficiary despite being geographically distant from the river system.

Indira Gandhi Canal Project

• Indira Gandhi Canal, formerly Rajasthan Canal, carries Ravi-Beas waters deep into the Thar Desert, transforming districts such as Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Barmer through irrigation and drinking water supply.

Composition of BBMB

• The Board is headed by a Chairman and full-time members, with beneficiary States participating through representation and coordination. Rajasthan contends that its current role is inadequate relative to its volumetric dependence.

River Boards Act, 1956

• Parliament enacted the River Boards Act to facilitate interstate river basin management, though very few river boards were constituted; BBMB remains one of India’s most enduring operational examples.

Constitutional and Legal Framework

Article 262

• Article 262 empowers Parliament to establish mechanisms for adjudication of interstate river disputes and permits exclusion of judicial jurisdiction to promote institutional resolution.

Entry 56, Union List

• Entry 56 authorises the Union Government to regulate and develop interstate rivers and river valleys in the public interest.

Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956

• The Act provides tribunals for water-sharing disputes, complementing operational bodies like BBMB that implement day-to-day allocation decisions.

Why Rajasthan Is Seeking a Permanent Seat ?

• Rajasthan receives more than half of the Ravi-Beas allocation, yet no State official has served as a full-time BBMB member, creating a perceived mismatch between resource dependence and institutional representation.
• The State argues that direct participation is essential for decisions on reservoir storage, maintenance planning, emergency releases and long-term infrastructure investments.

Importance of BBMB for Rajasthan

Irrigation Security

• BBMB waters sustain millions of hectares in arid western Rajasthan, enabling cultivation of wheat, mustard, cotton and fodder in regions that were historically desert landscapes.

Drinking Water Supply

• Several desert towns and villages rely on canal-based drinking water, making BBMB operations central to human security and public health.

Economic Transformation

• Canal irrigation has increased agricultural productivity, supported settlement and reduced distress migration from drought-prone districts.

Technology and Renewable Energy Suggestions

Real-Time Monitoring

• Rajasthan has advocated automated discharge gauges, satellite-based water accounting and transparent online dashboards to reduce disputes and build confidence among partner States.

Floating Solar

• Reservoir-based floating solar can reduce evaporation losses while generating renewable electricity from existing water infrastructure.

Pumped Storage

• Existing dams provide opportunities for grid-balancing storage to support India’s expanding solar and wind capacity.

Federal and Governance Significance

• The demand reflects the principle that States substantially dependent on shared resources should have meaningful representation in institutions governing those resources.
• Strengthened representation can enhance trust, reduce conflict and deepen cooperative federalism in a climate-stressed future.

Economic and Strategic Significance

• BBMB supports irrigation, drinking water and hydropower across north-western India, contributing to food security, rural incomes and energy reliability.
• Efficient governance is particularly important as water stress and competing sectoral demands intensify.

Environmental Significance

• Scientific reservoir management improves drought resilience, flood moderation and conjunctive use of water and energy.
• Renewable additions such as floating solar can increase sustainability without requiring significant new land acquisition.

Challenges

Institutional Resistance

• Expansion of the Board’s composition may require statutory and administrative adjustments as well as consensus among participating States.

Interstate Politics

• Water allocations often intersect with regional political sensitivities, making governance reforms contentious.

Climate Change

• Altered glacier melt and monsoon variability may intensify competition over Ravi-Beas waters.

Data and Facts

• Rajasthan’s share in Ravi-Beas waters: 52.96%
• Allocation to Rajasthan: 8.6 MAF
• BBMB established: 1966
• Governing law: Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966

Way Forward

• Create an additional full-time BBMB member for Rajasthan.
• Establish a public real-time water data platform.
• Undertake floating solar and pumped storage pilots.
• Integrate climate risk into reservoir rule curves.
• Strengthen periodic interstate consultation mechanisms.

Prelims Pointers

• BBMB was constituted under the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966.
• Ravi, Beas and Sutlej are eastern rivers under the Indus Waters Treaty.
• Rajasthan receives the largest share of Ravi-Beas waters.
• Indira Gandhi Canal carries these waters into the Thar Desert.

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Hantavirus as a Warning: Why Zoonotic Outbreaks May Become More Common

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Why in News?

• A recent Hantavirus outbreak has renewed concerns that zoonotic spillovers—pathogens jumping from animals to humans—may become more frequent due to deforestation, climate change, habitat fragmentation, and global travel.
• Leading virologist Gagandeep Kang emphasised that current systems largely react after outbreaks occur rather than predicting them through integrated One Health surveillance.

Relevance

• GS Paper III: Health, biotechnology, disaster management, climate change.
• GS Paper II: Global health governance and WHO reforms.

Practice Question

• “Zoonotic diseases are becoming more frequent due to environmental degradation and climate change. Examine the significance of the One Health approach in strengthening India’s health security.” (250 Words)

Static Background

Hantavirus

• Hantaviruses are RNA viruses primarily transmitted through contact with infected rodents, their urine, saliva or droppings, causing severe respiratory or haemorrhagic syndromes in humans.

Zoonotic Diseases

• Zoonoses are infectious diseases that naturally transmit from vertebrate animals to humans; examples include COVID-19, Ebola, Nipah, Avian Influenza, Rabies and Hantavirus.

Spillover Event

• A spillover occurs when a pathogen circulating in animals crosses species barriers and infects humans, often aided by ecological disturbance and close human-animal interaction.

One Health Approach

• One Health recognises that human, animal and environmental health are interconnected and advocates coordinated surveillance, prevention and response across sectors.

What Is Hantavirus?

• Hantavirus infection usually occurs through inhalation of aerosolised rodent excreta and can lead to Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) or Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome (HFRS).
• Unlike COVID-19, most hantaviruses are not efficiently transmitted from person to person, but they signal broader environmental conditions favouring emerging infectious diseases.

Why Zoonotic Spillovers Are Increasing

Deforestation and Habitat Loss

• Forest clearance and agricultural expansion push bats, rodents and other reservoir hosts into closer contact with human settlements, increasing opportunities for viral spillover.

Urban Expansion

• Unplanned urbanisation extends cities into wildlife habitats, reducing ecological buffers that previously separated humans from animal reservoirs.

Industrial Livestock Farming

• Dense populations of genetically similar animals act as amplification hosts, enabling rapid mutation and spread of pathogens with pandemic potential.

Climate Change

• Temperature and rainfall shifts alter species migration, vector distribution and pathogen survival, creating new transmission pathways.

Climate Change and Disease Geography

• Mosquitoes such as Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus are expanding to higher altitudes and latitudes, increasing risks of dengue, chikungunya and Zika.
• Changing agricultural patterns and extreme weather events alter rodent and bat populations, potentially increasing virus shedding and spillover frequency.

Major Human-Animal Interfaces of Concern

Wildlife-Human Contact

• Habitat fragmentation forces wildlife into agricultural and peri-urban landscapes, as seen in Nipah outbreaks in India and Bangladesh.

Livestock-Wildlife Interaction

• Intensive farming can create mixing vessels where pathogens adapt before infecting humans.

Wet Markets and Informal Trade

• High-density interactions among live animals and humans increase opportunities for viral recombination and transmission.

Global Disease Surveillance Gaps

• Current surveillance systems remain predominantly human-clinical and often detect outbreaks only after significant transmission has already occurred.
• Wildlife monitoring, veterinary surveillance and environmental sampling remain fragmented and chronically underfunded.

One Health Surveillance: Why It Matters

• Integrated monitoring across human, animal and environmental sectors enables earlier detection of pathogens before they become large outbreaks.
• Real-time data sharing and standardised protocols improve outbreak forecasting and coordinated response.

India’s Relevance

High Biodiversity and Dense Population

• India’s ecological diversity and close human-animal interactions create conditions conducive to zoonotic emergence.

Recent Zoonotic Outbreaks

• India has faced repeated outbreaks of Nipah virus, Avian Influenza, Kyasanur Forest Disease and Scrub Typhus.

National One Health Mission

• India has initiated cross-sectoral surveillance involving health, veterinary and environmental institutions to strengthen preparedness.

Global Governance Dimension

WHO Pandemic Accord

• Ongoing negotiations seek stronger cooperation on surveillance, early reporting, equitable access to diagnostics and coordinated response.

International Health Regulations (IHR)

• Strengthening compliance and reporting incentives is essential to prevent delays in outbreak notification. World Health Organization

Economic and Social Implications

• Pandemics can cause severe losses in GDP, employment, education and health outcomes, as demonstrated by COVID-19.
• Preventive investment in surveillance and ecosystem protection is significantly cheaper than responding to full-scale global pandemics.

Constitutional and Policy Linkages

• Article 21 guarantees the right to life, including public health.
• Article 48A directs the State to protect the environment.
• Article 51A(g) makes environmental protection a fundamental duty.

Data and Evidence

• More than 60% of known infectious diseases and about 75% of emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic, according to WHO and allied agencies.
• Hantavirus is a reminder that pathogen emergence is increasingly linked to ecological and climatic disruption.

Challenges

Fragmented Institutional Coordination

• Public health, veterinary and wildlife systems often function in silos with limited data interoperability.

Weak Local Capacity

• Many high-risk regions lack diagnostic laboratories and trained epidemiological personnel.

Environmental Degradation

• Continued deforestation and biodiversity loss intensify human-wildlife contact.

Funding Constraints

• Preventive surveillance receives far less investment than curative healthcare.

Way Forward

• Expand One Health surveillance across districts and ecosystems.
• Strengthen wildlife and veterinary laboratories.
• Integrate climate and disease forecasting.
• Regulate high-risk livestock systems and wildlife trade.
• Invest in local public health capacity and genomic surveillance.
• Conserve forests and biodiversity as preventive health infrastructure.

Prelims Pointers

• Hantavirus is primarily transmitted by rodents.
• One Health links human, animal and environmental health.
• Aedes mosquitoes are expanding due to climate change.
• International Health Regulations are coordinated by WHO.

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Repurposing Old Thermal Power Plants into Nuclear Sites

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Why in News?

• India has shortlisted three ageing coal-based thermal power plant sites for conversion into nuclear power projects, a significant step toward achieving its target of 100 GW nuclear capacity by 2047.
• The initiative is enabled by the Sustainable Harnessing and Advancement of Nuclear Energy for Transforming India Act, 2025, which modernises India’s nuclear governance and allows greater private participation in civil nuclear energy.

Relevance

• GS Paper III: Energy security, infrastructure, nuclear technology, climate change.
• GS Paper II: Regulatory reforms and public-private participation.

Practice Question

• “Repurposing ageing thermal power plants into nuclear facilities can accelerate India’s clean energy transition. Discuss the opportunities, challenges and policy requirements.” (250 Words)

Static Background

Nuclear Power in India

• Nuclear energy uses controlled nuclear fission of uranium or plutonium to generate electricity, providing reliable baseload power with near-zero operational carbon emissions.
• India currently operates 25 reactors with about 8.8 GW capacity, contributing roughly 3% of total electricity generation, with a long-term goal of 100 GW by 2047.

India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Programme

• Conceived by Homi J. Bhabha, the programme progresses from natural uranium reactors to fast breeder reactors and ultimately thorium-based reactors to exploit India’s abundant thorium reserves.

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)

• SMRs are compact reactors, generally below 300 MWe, designed for modular construction, lower upfront costs and deployment in smaller grids, industrial clusters and repurposed thermal plant sites.

Exclusion Zone

• A nuclear exclusion zone is a mandatory safety buffer, generally around 1 km radius, where habitation and economic activities are restricted to protect public health during emergencies.

What Is the Current Proposal?

• A sub-committee of the Central Electricity Authority, along with the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board and Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited, evaluated retired thermal sites for nuclear suitability.
• Of the three shortlisted sites, two are suitable for twin 700 MWe Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and one for two 220 MWe reactors.

Why Repurpose Old Thermal Power Sites?

Existing Infrastructure Advantage

• Retired coal plants already possess large land parcels, water access, transmission connectivity, roads and workforce ecosystems, significantly reducing project costs and gestation periods.

Just Energy Transition

• Repurposing facilitates a gradual shift from coal to clean energy while preserving local employment and economic activity in legacy power regions.

Environmental Imperative

• Ageing coal plants face rising emissions, stricter environmental norms and lower efficiency, making replacement with low-carbon nuclear energy strategically attractive.

Site Selection Criteria

• The committee initially screened 28 thermal power stations, focusing on units that were retired or over 40 years old.
• A 17-point checklist assessed land, water, seismotectonics, meteorology, accessibility and surrounding population characteristics.
• For two 700 MWe reactors, a minimum land requirement of 340 hectares and assured water availability were prescribed.

Role of the SHANTI Act, 2025

• The SHANTI Act consolidates the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 into a unified framework.
• It allows private Indian companies and joint ventures to participate in civil nuclear operations under strict safety oversight, improving capital availability and accelerating capacity addition.

Strategic Significance

Energy Security

• Nuclear energy reduces dependence on imported fossil fuels and provides stable, round-the-clock electricity to complement variable renewable sources like solar and wind.

Net-Zero Pathway

• Nuclear expansion supports India’s commitment to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070 by supplying clean baseload power.

Technology Leadership

• Development of indigenous SMRs and large PHWRs strengthens strategic autonomy and high-technology manufacturing capabilities.

Exclusion Zone Challenges

• One shortlisted site has 15–20 families within the existing 1 km exclusion zone, while another becomes feasible only if the buffer is reduced to 700 metres.
• The government is examining whether future plants, particularly SMRs with enhanced passive safety, can operate with smaller exclusion zones.

Why SMRs May Be Better Suited ?

• SMRs require less land and water, offer modular deployment and involve lower capital risk, making them particularly suitable for retired thermal sites with spatial constraints.
• The Union Budget 2025-26 allocated ₹20,000 crore for indigenous SMR development and a target of five operational SMRs by 2033.

Economic Implications

• Repurposing avoids stranded infrastructure, reduces greenfield acquisition costs and can create new manufacturing, engineering and high-skill employment opportunities.
• Nuclear localisation will stimulate domestic supply chains in heavy engineering, advanced materials and precision instrumentation.

Environmental Benefits

• Replacement of old coal stations with nuclear plants sharply reduces carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, particulate emissions and coal ash generation.
• Existing industrial sites minimise additional land disturbance and social displacement.

Challenges and Concerns

Safety and Public Acceptance

• Nuclear projects often face local concerns regarding radiation risk, emergency preparedness and long-term waste management.

Financing

• Nuclear plants require substantial upfront capital and long gestation periods, necessitating innovative financing and policy support.

Water Linkages

• Even shortlisted sites require formal approval from state governments for long-term water allocation.

Waste Management

• Safe storage and disposal of spent fuel remains a critical institutional and technological challenge.

International Best Practices

• Countries such as United States, Canada and United Kingdom are also exploring coal-to-nuclear conversions to accelerate clean energy transitions and preserve grid assets.

Data and Facts

• Current nuclear capacity: 8.8 GW
• Target for 2047: 100 GW
• Initial thermal sites screened: 28
• Final shortlisted sites: 3
• Budget allocation for SMRs: ₹20,000 crore
• Minimum land for two 700 MWe reactors: 340 hectares

Prelims Pointers

• SHANTI Act, 2025 modernises India’s nuclear legal framework.
• SMRs are modular reactors with smaller footprints.
• AERB regulates nuclear safety.
• NPCIL remains the principal nuclear operator.
• Nuclear power is a low-carbon baseload source.