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1. Dam Rehabilitation in India: Strengthening Infrastructure through Policy and Technology

Dam Rehabilitation in India: Strengthening Infrastructure through Policy and Technology

Why in News?

• Press Information Bureau highlighted that India, with 6,628 specified dams, has the third-largest large dam network in the world. Since over 26% of these dams are more than 50 years old, rehabilitation and safety upgrades have become critical for national water security.
• The government is implementing the Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP) and the Dam Safety Act, 2021, supported by DHARMA, instrumentation, and Early Warning Systems to strengthen structural integrity, disaster preparedness, and real-time monitoring.

Relevance

• GS Paper 2: Governance, statutory authorities, and cooperative federalism.
• GS Paper 3: Disaster management, climate resilience, and infrastructure technology.

Practice Question

• “Ageing dam infrastructure and climate variability have made dam safety a critical governance and disaster management issue in India.” Discuss with reference to DRIP and the Dam Safety Act, 2021. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

Static Background

Importance of Dams

• Dams support irrigation, hydropower, flood moderation, drinking water supply, and industrial use. They are foundational to India’s food, water, and energy security and have significantly contributed to agricultural productivity and regional economic development.
• India’s reservoirs together provide approximately 330 billion cubic metres (BCM) of storage capacity, enabling drought mitigation, flood cushioning, and regulated water availability across seasons and climatic extremes.

Historical Legacy

• Kallanai (Grand Anicut), built during the Chola period and functioning for nearly 2,000 years, demonstrates India’s long-standing expertise in hydraulic engineering and sustainable infrastructure maintenance.

Current Status of Dams in India

National Dam Inventory

• India has 6,628 specified dams, including 6,545 operational and 83 under construction. This vast network underpins irrigation systems, hydroelectric generation, and flood control across multiple river basins.
• About 98.5% (6,448 dams) are owned by State Governments, making dam safety a prime example of cooperative federalism involving central policy guidance and state-level implementation.

Age Profile

• Approximately 1,681 dams (26%) are more than 50 years old, while 291 dams have crossed 100 years, increasing vulnerability to structural deterioration, seepage, and design obsolescence.
• Another 42% fall within the 25–50 year age bracket, indicating that a large majority of India’s dams require regular modernization and lifecycle-based maintenance.

Sedimentation and Capacity Loss

• Analysis by the Central Water Commission of 439 reservoirs shows an average 19% loss of gross storage capacity due to sedimentation, reducing irrigation potential and flood-buffering ability.
• The annual storage loss is estimated at 0.74%, equivalent to approximately 1.81 million cubic metres per reservoir per year.

Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP)

Overview

• DRIP is one of the world’s largest dam rehabilitation programmes, focusing on structural repairs, spillway modernization, instrumentation, and operational improvements using a systematic risk-based approach.

DRIP Phase I (2012–2021)

• Implemented with World Bank support, Phase I covered 223 dams across seven States, strengthening institutional capacity and introducing Emergency Action Plans and digital monitoring systems.

DRIP Phase II and III (2021–2031)

• DRIP Phase II and III have a total outlay of ₹10,211 crore, jointly financed by the World Bank and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank.
• The programme covers 736 dams across 19 States and three central agencies, reflecting India’s shift from ad hoc repairs to lifecycle-based asset management.
• As of 31 March 2025, expenditure reached ₹2,225 crore, and major physical rehabilitation works were completed at 43 dams.

Constitutional and Legal Framework

Constitutional Linkages

• Article 21 guarantees the right to life, which includes protection from avoidable disasters such as dam failures and sudden flood releases.
• Article 48A directs the State to protect and improve the environment, including sustainable river and reservoir management.
• Article 51A(g) makes it a Fundamental Duty to protect natural resources and maintain ecological balance.

Dam Safety Act, 2021

• The Act came into force on 30 December 2021, creating a statutory framework for surveillance, inspection, operation, and maintenance of specified dams.
• A specified dam includes those above 15 metres, or 10–15 metres if they satisfy prescribed technical criteria.

Institutional Framework

National Committee on Dam Safety (NCDS)

• NCDS is the apex policy body responsible for formulating standards, regulations, and technical guidelines to ensure uniform dam safety practices across India.

National Dam Safety Authority (NDSA)

• NDSA acts as the implementing and regulatory authority, monitoring compliance and resolving technical and inter-State safety issues.

State Dam Safety Organisations (SDSOs)

• All 31 dam-owning States have established SDSOs, responsible for surveillance, inspections, and enforcement of safety measures at the state level.

Technology and Digital Governance

DHARMA Platform

• Dam Health and Rehabilitation Monitoring Application (DHARMA) is a web and mobile platform for centralized data management, inspections, and dam safety documentation.
• All 6,628 specified dams have been registered on DHARMA, enabling evidence-based and transparent safety management.

Real-Time Monitoring

• Instrumentation systems measure seepage, uplift pressure, and structural deformation, while Early Warning Systems enable timely alerts to downstream communities.

Inspections and Risk Screening

• Approximately 13,000 inspections are conducted annually, and 5,553 dams have undergone Rapid Risk Screening to prioritize rehabilitation needs.

Governance and Administrative Significance

Statutory Accountability

• Dam owners must establish safety units, prepare Operation and Maintenance Manuals, Emergency Action Plans, and allocate dedicated funds for repairs and modernization.

Cooperative Federalism

• Since States own most dams, the Act creates a harmonized national framework while preserving state ownership and operational responsibility.

Penalties for Non-Compliance

• Obstruction or failure to comply with statutory directions can lead to imprisonment up to one year, extendable to two years if negligence endangers human life.

Economic Significance

Agriculture and Food Security

• Dams provide irrigation to vast agricultural regions, stabilizing crop production and rural incomes, especially in water-stressed and monsoon-dependent areas.

Energy Security

• Hydropower generated from reservoirs supports renewable energy goals and provides peaking and balancing power for grid stability.

Reduced Disaster Losses

• Preventive rehabilitation lowers the risk of catastrophic failures that can cause extensive losses to infrastructure, livelihoods, and public finances.

Environmental and Climate Dimensions

Climate Variability

• Extreme rainfall, prolonged droughts, and altered hydrological patterns challenge original design assumptions and increase operational uncertainty.

Sedimentation and Ecosystem Impacts

• Reservoir siltation reduces storage capacity, while altered river flows affect sediment transport and downstream ecosystems.

Climate Resilience

• Modernized spillways, seismic retrofitting, and dynamic reservoir operation improve resilience to future climate and geophysical risks.

Science and Technology Dimension

Advanced Instrumentation

• Sensors and telemetry systems provide continuous monitoring of structural stress, seepage, and reservoir conditions, enabling predictive maintenance.

Centres of Excellence

• Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee and Indian Institute of Science Bengaluru are leading research and training institutions for dam safety.
• Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur hosts the National Centre for Earthquake Safety of Dams.

Social and Disaster Management Significance

Community Safety

• Emergency Action Plans and Early Warning Systems protect downstream settlements by enabling timely evacuation and coordinated response.

Public Confidence

• Transparent digital monitoring and statutory oversight enhance trust in public infrastructure and disaster governance institutions.

Challenges and Constraints

• Large-scale rehabilitation requires substantial and sustained financial investment.
• Many States face shortages of specialized engineers and technical expertise.
• Procurement delays and contractor bottlenecks can slow implementation.
• Sedimentation and climate impacts demand basin-wide planning beyond structural repairs alone.

Way Forward

• Adopt lifecycle asset management rather than reactive repair approaches.
• Expand use of AI, drones, remote sensing, and digital twins for predictive monitoring.
• Integrate dam operations with climate projections and basin hydrology.
• Establish ring-fenced maintenance funds for long-term upkeep.
• Strengthen community awareness and public dissemination of risk information.

Data and Facts

• 6,628 specified dams in India.
• 26% are more than 50 years old.
• 291 dams are over 100 years old.
• 330 BCM gross storage capacity.
• 19% average storage loss due to sedimentation.
• DRIP II and III outlay: ₹10,211 crore.
• 13,000 annual inspections.
• 5,553 dams completed Rapid Risk Screening.

Prelims Pointers

• India ranks 3rd globally in number of large dams.
• DHARMA stands for Dam Health and Rehabilitation Monitoring Application.
• Dam Safety Act came into force on 30 December 2021.
• NCDS is the apex policy body; NDSA is the regulatory authority.
• Kallanai (Grand Anicut) is located in Tamil Nadu.