Content Deep-Sea Fishing promotion and incentives PM SVANidhi LOANS Deep-Sea Fishing promotion and incentives Context The Government of India notified the Sustainable Harnessing of Fisheries in the EEZ Rules, 2025 under the Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and Other Maritime Zones Act, 1976 to regulate mechanised fishing vessels operating beyond coastal waters. The rules mandate access passes for mechanised fishing vessels and motorised boats ≥24 m length, or vessels exclusively targeting tuna and tuna-like species, enabling regulated exploitation of fishery resources in India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). As of 5 March 2026, a total of 707 access passes were issued through the ReALCraft online portal, covering vessels from all coastal States and Union Territories operating in India’s EEZ waters. The initiative aims to shift fishing effort from overexploited near-shore waters to underutilised deep-sea resources, improve fisher incomes, reduce coastal ecological pressure, and expand India’s share in global marine fisheries trade. Relevance GS Paper III – Economy / Agriculture / Fisheries Blue Economy and marine resource utilisation Fisheries sector modernisation and export competitiveness Sustainable resource management in marine ecosystems GS Paper III – Environment & Security Sustainable marine resource management Monitoring illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing Maritime domain awareness in the Indian Ocean Region Practice Question Q. India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) possesses significant untapped fisheries potential. In this context, examine the role of deep-sea fishing promotion policies in enhancing India’s blue economy while ensuring ecological sustainability. (250 words) Static Background: Marine Fisheries in India EEZ and Maritime Jurisdiction India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extends up to 200 nautical miles from the baseline, granting sovereign rights for exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of marine resources under UNCLOS provisions. India’s EEZ covers about 2.02 million sq. km, making it one of the largest in the Indian Ocean region and providing substantial potential for deep-sea fisheries and offshore resource exploitation. The 1976 Maritime Zones Act operationalised India’s EEZ rights domestically, enabling regulation of fisheries, offshore exploration and conservation activities within maritime jurisdiction. Structure of Indian Marine Fisheries India possesses ~11,098 km coastline, 3,827 fishing villages, and over 1 million active marine fishers, making fisheries a critical component of coastal livelihoods and the blue economy. Marine fisheries contribute roughly 3–4% of agricultural GDP, while fisheries overall contribute around 1.1% of national GDP and about 7–8% of agricultural GVA. India is the 3rd largest fish producer globally and among the top exporters of seafood, with exports exceeding USD 7 billion annually, led by shrimp and high-value marine products. Deep-Sea Fishing: Concept and Importance Deep-sea fishing refers to fishing operations beyond 12 nautical miles and typically between 200–1000 metres depth, targeting high-value species such as tuna, billfish, oceanic squid and pelagic fish. The sector is relatively underdeveloped in India due to limited offshore fleet capacity, technological constraints, and inadequate deep-sea navigation skills among traditional fishers. Promoting deep-sea fishing helps reduce overfishing in coastal waters, improve export-oriented fish production and strengthen India’s maritime presence in the Indian Ocean. Resource Potential of Deep-Sea Fisheries The Expert Committee for Revalidation of Potential Yield of Fishery Resources in India’s EEZ estimated the total potential yield at 53.1 lakh tonnes annually, indicating substantial untapped marine resource potential. Of this potential, Andhra Pradesh EEZ alone accounts for approximately 3.65 lakh tonnes, highlighting the significant regional opportunity for expanding deep-sea fishing operations. However, India currently exploits only around 70–75% of total marine potential, with deep-sea resources particularly underutilised compared to coastal fisheries. Institutional and Policy Framework Blue Revolution Scheme (2015–2020) The Blue Revolution Scheme introduced financial assistance components for deep-sea fishing vessel acquisition and conversion of trawlers into resource-specific vessels, enabling transition from destructive bottom trawling to sustainable offshore fishing. Under this scheme in Andhra Pradesh, 12 deep-sea vessels were sanctioned with ₹9.6 crore project cost, receiving ₹2.33 crore central assistance. Additionally, 57 trawlers were converted into deep-sea fishing vessels with ₹8.55 crore project cost, supported by ₹4.27 crore central financial assistance. Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) The flagship fisheries development programme Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana, launched in 2020-21, aims to transform India’s fisheries sector through infrastructure, productivity enhancement and value-chain development. PMMSY includes components such as support for acquisition of deep-sea fishing vessels and upgrading vessels for export competitiveness, targeting high-value international seafood markets. Under PMMSY in Andhra Pradesh, 50 deep-sea fishing vessels were approved with ₹60 crore project cost, receiving ₹15.26 crore central financial assistance. Capacity Building and Skill Development The National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB) functions as the nodal agency for training and capacity building under PMMSY’s fisheries skill development components. NFDB, in collaboration with Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical and Engineering Training, has trained 8,040 marine fishermen in deep-sea fishing techniques and onboard fish handling practices. Out of these trainees, 874 fishermen belong to Andhra Pradesh, reflecting targeted regional capacity-building initiatives for deep-sea fishing expansion. The Fishery Survey of India also conducts onboard skill training programmes focusing on deep-sea tuna longlining and sashimi-grade tuna handling, crucial for export-oriented fisheries. In 2025–26, 112 fishers from Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep received practical training aboard FSI vessels on monofilament longline operations, gear configuration and deck management. Training programmes also include modules on deep-sea navigation, GPS, echo sounders, AIS systems, maritime safety protocols, and firefighting equipment, improving fisher safety and operational efficiency. Access Regulation for EEZ Fishing The Sustainable Harnessing of Fisheries in the EEZ Rules, 2025 introduced a digital access pass system to regulate mechanised fishing vessels operating beyond coastal waters. As of March 2026, 707 access passes were issued across India’s coastal states, ensuring formal regulation and monitoring of offshore fishing activities. State-wise distribution highlights strong participation from western and eastern maritime states, particularly Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. State-Wise Distribution of Access Passes (2026) State/UT Access Passes Gujarat 274 Andhra Pradesh 162 Daman & Diu 91 Kerala 63 Odisha 47 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 34 Lakshadweep 13 West Bengal 9 Goa 5 Karnataka 3 Maharashtra 2 Tamil Nadu 2 Puducherry 2 Governance and Strategic Importance Economic Dimension Deep-sea fishing enhances high-value seafood exports, particularly tuna and sashimi-grade fish demanded in Japan, EU and US markets. Offshore fishing expansion can reduce pressure on coastal ecosystems, improving long-term sustainability of marine fisheries. Development of deep-sea fisheries supports India’s Blue Economy vision, which could potentially generate USD 100 billion annually by 2030 across maritime sectors. Social Dimension Transition to deep-sea fishing can increase fisher incomes significantly, as offshore pelagic species have higher market value compared to near-shore catches. Training and vessel modernization programmes improve occupational safety, professionalisation of marine fishing, and intergenerational livelihood sustainability. Strategic and Maritime Dimension Strengthening fishing fleets in offshore waters reinforces India’s maritime presence in the Indian Ocean Region, indirectly supporting maritime security and domain awareness. Deep-sea fishing vessels can also contribute to monitoring illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing activities by foreign vessels in India’s EEZ. Key Challenges Resource and Ecological Concerns Unregulated expansion of deep-sea fishing may lead to overexploitation of pelagic stocks, especially tuna and squid, if scientific stock assessments remain weak. Deep-sea ecosystems are slow-recovering and biodiversity-rich, making unsustainable fishing practices potentially irreversible in ecological damage. Institutional and Governance Issues Fragmented regulatory framework between central government (EEZ fisheries) and state governments (territorial waters fisheries) creates policy coordination challenges. Monitoring offshore fishing operations remains difficult due to limited vessel tracking infrastructure and enforcement capacity. Technological and Financial Constraints Deep-sea vessels require high capital investment, advanced navigation systems and refrigeration facilities, often unaffordable for small-scale traditional fishers without strong subsidies. Lack of cold-chain infrastructure, onboard processing units and international certification systems limits export competitiveness. Social Concerns Rapid mechanisation may marginalise artisanal and small-scale coastal fishers, potentially triggering livelihood conflicts between industrial and traditional fishing sectors. Way Forward Strengthen scientific stock assessment mechanisms through collaboration between fisheries research institutes, oceanographic agencies and satellite monitoring technologies. Expand vessel monitoring systems (VMS), AIS tracking and satellite surveillance to ensure sustainable fishing and prevent illegal exploitation. Promote cluster-based fisher cooperatives and credit support mechanisms to enable small fishers to access deep-sea fishing vessels and technology. Develop integrated cold-chain logistics, tuna processing hubs and export certification systems to maximise value addition and global competitiveness. Encourage sustainable fishing practices, ecosystem-based fisheries management and marine spatial planning to balance economic expansion with biodiversity conservation. Prelims Pointers India’s Exclusive Economic Zone extends up to 200 nautical miles from the baseline. Potential yield of India’s EEZ fisheries: 53.1 lakh tonnes annually. PMMSY launched in 2020-21 to modernise India’s fisheries sector. Deep-sea fishing vessels typically target tuna, billfish and pelagic species. 707 access passes issued for EEZ fishing operations as of March 2026. PM SVANidhi LOANS Context  The Government reported that 72.71 lakh street vendors have availed loans under the PM SVANidhi scheme since its launch, reflecting expanding financial inclusion among informal urban workers. The scheme functions as a demand-driven micro-credit programme, where eligible street vendors apply for working capital loans through the PM SVANidhi portal or mobile application. The scheme operates within the legal framework of the Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014, which mandates vendor surveys, registration, and issuance of Certificates of Vending by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). Following restructuring in August 2025, the government launched Lok Kalyan Melas, nationwide awareness drives, and digital literacy campaigns to expand vendor coverage and accelerate loan disbursement. Relevance GS Paper II – Governance / Social Justice Urban informal sector governance Street Vendors Act, 2014 and rights-based livelihood protection Role of Urban Local Bodies in welfare implementation GS Paper III – Economy Financial inclusion and micro-enterprise development Formalisation of informal urban economy Practice Question Q. PM SVANidhi has emerged as a major initiative for financial inclusion of urban informal workers. Evaluate its role in empowering street vendors while highlighting the implementation challenges. (250 words) Static Background: Street Vendors in India Informal Urban Economy Street vending forms a significant component of India’s urban informal economy, providing affordable goods and services while generating employment for economically vulnerable populations lacking access to formal jobs. According to estimates by the National Association of Street Vendors of India (NASVI), India hosts around 10 million street vendors, accounting for nearly 2.5% of the urban population. Street vendors contribute significantly to urban retail supply chains, ensuring last-mile delivery of food, household goods, and essential services to low-income urban consumers. Historical Evolution of Policy Street vendors historically faced harassment, eviction drives, and confiscation of goods due to absence of a formal legal framework governing street vending activities. The Supreme Court in Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985) recognised right to livelihood under Article 21, providing constitutional backing to informal workers including pavement vendors. These developments led to the enactment of the Street Vendors Act, 2014, establishing a rights-based regulatory framework for urban vending activities. Legal and Institutional Framework Street Vendors Act, 2014 The Act recognises street vending as a legitimate economic activity, ensuring protection of livelihood while balancing urban planning and public space management. It mandates Town Vending Committees (TVCs) in every Urban Local Body, comprising vendor representatives, local authorities, and civil society members. The Act requires periodic vendor surveys and issuance of Certificates of Vending, which legally authorise vendors to operate in designated vending zones. It also prescribes grievance redressal mechanisms and protection from arbitrary eviction, promoting inclusive urban governance. PM SVANidhi Scheme: Overview PM SVANidhi (Pradhan Mantri Street Vendor’s AtmaNirbhar Nidhi) was launched in June 2020 by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs to provide collateral-free working capital loans to street vendors affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. The scheme aims to formalise informal vendors, promote digital payments, and integrate street vendors into the formal financial ecosystem. It functions as a micro-credit scheme supported by banks, microfinance institutions, and non-banking financial companies. Key Features of the Scheme Loan Structure The scheme provides collateral-free working capital loans starting at ₹10,000, enabling vendors to restart businesses, replenish working capital, and recover from pandemic-induced income disruptions. Vendors who repay the first loan on time become eligible for second-cycle loans up to ₹20,000 and third-cycle loans up to ₹50,000, promoting gradual financial growth. Interest subsidy of 7% per annum is provided on timely loan repayment, directly credited to beneficiaries’ bank accounts. Digital Payment Incentives The scheme promotes digital financial inclusion among street vendors, encouraging adoption of QR codes and digital payment platforms. Vendors receive monthly cashback incentives for digital transactions, thereby strengthening India’s transition towards a less-cash economy. Credit Linkages and Financial Inclusion PM SVANidhi facilitates credit history creation for previously unbanked vendors, enabling future access to formal financial services. The scheme also integrates vendors with other welfare schemes, including social security programmes and insurance coverage. Implementation Architecture Role of Urban Local Bodies Urban Local Bodies are responsible for vendor identification, conducting surveys, issuing Certificates of Vending, and verifying eligibility of applicants under the scheme. ULBs coordinate with banks, lending institutions and digital payment aggregators to ensure timely processing of loan applications. Digital Platforms Vendors apply for loans through the PM SVANidhi portal or mobile application, simplifying application procedures and enabling digital tracking of applications. The mobile application includes a voice-based grievance redressal system, improving accessibility for vendors with limited literacy or digital skills. Implementation Data   As of 31 January 2026, 72.71 lakh street vendors have availed loans under the scheme, reflecting wide coverage across India’s urban informal sector. Awareness campaigns conducted by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs include radio jingles, television advertisements, social media outreach and local language IEC materials. Following scheme restructuring in August 2025, SMS notifications were sent to approximately 69 lakh beneficiaries informing them about updated scheme benefits. Lok Kalyan Melas organised between September and October 2025 facilitated vendor mobilisation, loan application support, digital onboarding and faster disbursement. Governance and Economic Significance Economic Impact PM SVANidhi strengthens micro-enterprise development in urban informal sectors, supporting small vendors who operate with minimal capital and limited access to institutional credit. The scheme improves financial resilience of vulnerable urban households, particularly migrants, seasonal workers and self-employed individuals. Social Justice Dimension The scheme promotes inclusive urban development by recognising street vendors as legitimate economic actors rather than informal encroachers. It operationalises the constitutional values of right to livelihood, dignity of labour and social justice. Digital Governance Integration of digital payments enhances financial transparency, digital literacy and formal financial integration of informal workers. The initiative aligns with India’s Digital India and JAM (Jan Dhan–Aadhaar–Mobile) trinity framework for direct benefit transfers. Key Challenges Identification and Coverage Issues Many street vendors remain unregistered due to outdated surveys or lack of Certificates of Vending, preventing them from accessing scheme benefits. Migrant and seasonal vendors often face documentation challenges and mobility constraints. Institutional and Implementation Challenges Urban Local Bodies often face capacity constraints in conducting vendor surveys, verifying applications and coordinating with financial institutions. Delays in loan processing occur due to bank hesitancy, risk perception and incomplete documentation. Financial Sustainability Many vendors operate with low and unstable incomes, making timely loan repayment difficult and increasing the risk of loan defaults. Digital Divide Despite incentives, adoption of digital payments remains uneven due to limited smartphone access, low digital literacy and unreliable internet connectivity in many urban areas. Way Forward Conduct regular nationwide vendor surveys and update vending registers to ensure comprehensive identification of beneficiaries. Strengthen Town Vending Committees and Urban Local Bodies through capacity-building and financial support. Expand digital literacy programmes and affordable smartphone access to enhance digital payment adoption among street vendors. Integrate PM SVANidhi with urban livelihood programmes such as DAY-NULM, enabling skill development, market linkages and enterprise expansion. Develop urban vending zones and infrastructure such as vending markets, storage facilities and waste management systems to improve working conditions. Prelims Pointers PM SVANidhi launched in June 2020 for street vendors affected by COVID-19. Provides collateral-free loans starting at ₹10,000, with subsequent cycles up to ₹20,000 and ₹50,000. 7% interest subsidy on timely repayment. 72.71 lakh vendors benefited as of January 2026. Implemented by Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs

Content The many limitations of a social-media ban The India-Canada turnaround is about deliverables The many limitations of a social-media ban Context Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh governments have proposed social-media access restrictions for children below 16 and 13 years respectively, reviving debate on whether states possess legislative competence to regulate digital platforms. The issue has gained policy attention due to rising concerns regarding online harms affecting minors, including cyberbullying, grooming, exposure to explicit content, digital addiction, and mental-health impacts. Experts argue that fragmented state-level bans may create regulatory challenges, because digital platforms and telecommunications fall under the Union List, making central legislation a more viable regulatory approach. The Union Government is reportedly exploring a nuanced regulatory framework to protect children online while balancing digital innovation, privacy rights, and freedom of expression. Relevance GS II – Polity & Governance: Legislative competence under Seventh Schedule (Union List Entry 31); regulation of digital platforms; constitutional balance between Article 19(1)(a) (free speech) and Article 21 (privacy and mental well-being). GS II – Social Justice / Child Protection: Online safety of children; cyberbullying, grooming, and digital addiction; role of IT Act, IT Rules 2021, POCSO Act, DPDP Act 2023. Practice Question Do Indian states possess legislative competence to regulate social-media platforms? Examine the constitutional and policy challenges involved. (250 words) Constitutional and Legal Framework Legislative Competence Telecommunications, internet infrastructure and digital platforms fall under the Union List (Entry 31) of the Seventh Schedule, implying that regulation of social-media platforms primarily lies with the Union Government. States may legislate on public order, child welfare, and education, but restrictions on internet access or digital platforms could face constitutional scrutiny if they encroach upon Union jurisdiction. Relevant Constitutional Rights Regulation of social media must balance Article 19(1)(a) – Freedom of speech and expression with reasonable restrictions under Article 19(2) related to public order, morality, and security. Child protection policies must also uphold Article 21 – Right to life and personal liberty, which includes the right to privacy and mental well-being as interpreted in the Puttaswamy judgment (2017). Existing Legal Framework Information Technology Act, 2000 provides the primary legal framework for regulating digital intermediaries and harmful online content. The Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021 require platforms to remove unlawful content and establish grievance redress mechanisms. Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012 criminalises online sexual exploitation, grooming, and circulation of child sexual abuse material. Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 mandates parental consent for processing personal data of children under 18 years. Nature of Online Harms Affecting Children Online Grooming and Sexual Exploitation Few Digital platforms expose children to predatory behaviour, grooming networks and circulation of child sexual abuse material, which has increased globally with rising internet penetration. According to National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data, cybercrimes against children, particularly involving sexual exploitation, have been steadily increasing over recent years. Exposure to Harmful Content Children can easily access explicit sexual content, violent media, hate speech and misinformation, which may negatively influence behaviour and psychological development. Algorithm-driven social media feeds may amplify harmful or sensational content, exposing young users to disturbing material repeatedly. Social Media Addiction Prolonged social-media usage among adolescents is associated with dopamine-driven behavioural addiction, reducing attention span and affecting academic performance. Studies by global institutions such as UNICEF and WHO highlight rising concerns about excessive screen time among children. Mental Health Impacts Excessive exposure to social media is linked with anxiety, depression, cyberbullying and body-image issues, particularly among adolescent users. Online harassment and trolling can have severe psychological consequences, including self-esteem deterioration and social withdrawal. Governance and Policy Challenges Fragmented State-Level Regulations State-specific social-media bans could create regulatory fragmentation, where digital platforms must comply with different rules across states, complicating enforcement. Such fragmentation may also undermine the uniform regulatory framework required for digital platforms operating nationally and globally. Enforcement Difficulties Verifying users’ age online is technically complex because children often access platforms through shared devices or use false credentials. Enforcement agencies may face capacity constraints, making it difficult to monitor compliance across millions of digital users. Privacy Concerns Age-verification mechanisms may require collection of sensitive personal data, potentially exposing children to surveillance risks or data misuse. Excessive monitoring mechanisms may conflict with data protection principles and digital rights. Limitations of Parental Consent Models Existing laws often rely on parental consent for children’s digital access, but parents may not always fully understand online risks or possess adequate digital literacy. Over-reliance on parental responsibility may ignore children’s evolving capacity and digital autonomy. Global Approaches to Regulating Children’s Online Safety The European Union’s Digital Services Act (DSA) imposes stricter obligations on platforms to protect minors from harmful content and targeted advertising. The United Kingdom’s Online Safety Act (2023) mandates technology companies to implement robust age verification and safety mechanisms for children. In the United States, the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) regulates the collection of personal data from children under 13 years. Several countries are exploring algorithmic accountability frameworks to reduce harmful content exposure for minors. Social and Ethical Dimensions Policies regulating children’s internet access must balance child protection with digital inclusion, ensuring that restrictions do not disproportionately limit educational and informational opportunities. Excessive regulation may unintentionally restrict online participation for marginalised groups such as girls or LGBTQIA+ youth, who often rely on digital spaces for community support. Ethical policymaking requires recognising children as evolving rights-bearing individuals, rather than treating them merely as passive subjects of regulation. Technology Dimension Artificial intelligence and algorithmic systems increasingly shape content exposure on social media platforms, influencing children’s digital behaviour and information consumption. Gaming platforms, chat applications and large language models also present emerging risks related to addiction, misinformation and inappropriate interactions. Effective regulation must therefore address platform design, algorithmic transparency and digital safety standards, not merely access restrictions. Challenges in Policy Design Sweeping bans on social-media access may prove ineffective because children often bypass restrictions through VPNs, shared accounts or alternate platforms. Over-regulation may also stifle innovation and digital entrepreneurship, especially in India’s rapidly expanding digital economy. Policymakers must navigate the complex trade-off between digital freedom, economic growth and child protection. Way Forward India should enact a comprehensive children’s online safety framework, integrating provisions from the IT Act, DPDP Act and child protection laws into a coherent regulatory architecture. Digital platforms should be required to implement “safety-by-design” features, including age-appropriate content filters, parental control tools and algorithmic transparency. Governments should invest in digital literacy programmes for parents, teachers and children, enabling informed and responsible use of online platforms. Strengthening cooperation between technology companies, law enforcement agencies and civil society organisations can improve monitoring and response to online harms. Policy interventions should emphasise targeted mitigation strategies addressing specific harms, rather than blanket bans that may prove difficult to enforce. Prelims Pointers Entry 31, Union List: Telecommunications, posts, telegraphs, telephones and internet regulation fall under the Union Government’s jurisdiction. Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: Requires parental consent for processing personal data of children under 18 years. IT Rules, 2021: Define obligations for social media intermediaries regarding content moderation and grievance redressal. POCSO Act, 2012: Covers online sexual exploitation and grooming of children. The India-Canada turnaround is about deliverables Context Canadian Prime Minister Mark Carney visited India from 27 February–2 March 2026, marking the first major diplomatic reset after strained ties during the tenure of former Prime Minister Justin Trudeau. The visit followed Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s engagement at the Kananaskis G7 outreach (June 2025) and a bilateral meeting during the G20 Summit sidelines in Johannesburg (November 2025) aimed at restoring diplomatic momentum. The visit produced eight agreements covering trade, nuclear fuel supply, critical minerals cooperation, technology partnerships and research collaboration, signalling renewed emphasis on economic diplomacy. The discussions occurred amid global supply-chain disruptions caused by U.S. tariff policies, Russia–Ukraine conflict, and West Asia instability, prompting both countries to prioritise economic resilience and strategic diversification. Relevance GS II – International Relations: Reset in India–Canada bilateral relations, diplomatic engagement after tensions; role of diaspora diplomacy and economic partnership GS III – Economy / Trade: Negotiations on Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA); expansion of bilateral trade, agri-imports (pulses), technology partnerships. Practice Question India–Canada relations have witnessed periodic diplomatic tensions but remain strategically important. Examine the factors shaping the contemporary trajectory of bilateral ties. (250 words) Historical Background of India–Canada Relations India and Canada established diplomatic relations in 1947, with cooperation historically centred on agriculture, civil nuclear cooperation, education exchanges and multilateral diplomacy. Canada hosts a large Indian-origin diaspora of about 1.86 million people (2023 Canadian census), representing nearly 5% of Canada’s population, making it one of the largest overseas Indian communities. Bilateral ties experienced tensions between 2023–2024 due to political disagreements related to Khalistan-linked extremism and allegations raised by the Trudeau government, affecting diplomatic engagement. Despite political strains, economic ties continued, with bilateral merchandise trade reaching approximately USD 8.3 billion in 2023–24, indicating sustained commercial interdependence. Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) India and Canada signed the terms of reference for the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA), restarting negotiations that had stalled since 2017 due to regulatory and political differences. CEPA aims to reduce tariffs on goods such as agricultural products, pharmaceuticals, information technology services and clean energy technologies, expanding bilateral trade potential. Canada is currently the 18th largest trading partner of India, while India ranks among Canada’s top ten trade partners in the Indo-Pacific region. Canada has been an important supplier of pulses to India, particularly lentils and peas, contributing significantly to India’s food security and agricultural trade diversification. Technology and Innovation Cooperation India, Canada and Australia launched collaboration under the Australia–Canada–India Technology and Innovation Partnership, aimed at strengthening cooperation in artificial intelligence, advanced manufacturing and digital technologies. The partnership reflects growing Indo-Pacific technology coalitions seeking to reduce reliance on single-country technology supply chains, particularly those dominated by China. India’s digital economy is expected to reach USD 1 trillion by 2030, making collaboration in emerging technologies an important strategic opportunity for Canada. Critical Minerals Cooperation India and Canada signed a Memorandum of Understanding on critical minerals, focusing on cooperation in exploration, mining, processing and supply-chain development. Canada possesses large reserves of lithium, cobalt, nickel and rare earth elements, minerals essential for electric vehicle batteries, semiconductors and renewable energy technologies. China currently dominates around 60–70% of global rare-earth processing capacity, creating supply-chain vulnerabilities for countries dependent on these resources. The India–Canada partnership aligns with emerging technology supply-chain initiatives, including semiconductor and AI cooperation networks among trusted Indo-Pacific partners. Uranium Supply Agreement and Nuclear Energy Cooperation India’s Department of Atomic Energy signed a commercial agreement with Cameco Corporation, one of the world’s largest uranium producers, for long-term supply of uranium ore concentrates. Canada accounts for approximately 13% of global uranium production, making it a key supplier for countries expanding civil nuclear power generation. India aims to increase nuclear energy capacity from about 7.5 GW in 2024 to 100 GW by 2047, as part of its long-term energy transition strategy. The agreement strengthens fuel security for India’s nuclear reactors, complementing earlier nuclear cooperation agreements signed between India and Canada in 2010 and renewed supply contracts in 2015. Energy Security and Clean Energy Transition India is currently the third-largest energy consumer in the world, with energy demand projected to increase by 25–30% by 2040 according to the International Energy Agency (IEA). Nuclear energy provides low-carbon baseload electricity, supporting India’s climate commitments under the Paris Agreement and net-zero target by 2070. Expanding nuclear power capacity is also supported by the Sustainable Harnessing and Advancement of Nuclear Energy for Transforming India (SHANTI) Bill, 2025, which seeks to accelerate nuclear infrastructure development. Strategic Significance of Supply Chain Diversification The global push for supply-chain diversification intensified after disruptions during the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical conflicts affecting shipping routes and raw material availability. India’s participation in critical mineral partnerships and semiconductor supply chains reflects efforts to reduce dependence on Chinese-controlled processing networks. Canada’s vast natural resource base, including uranium, potash, lithium and rare earths, complements India’s growing industrial and clean energy requirements. Indo-Pacific Geopolitical Context Canada released its Indo-Pacific Strategy in 2022, identifying India as a key partner for economic diversification and regional security cooperation. India’s Indo-Pacific vision emphasises freedom of navigation, secure sea lanes and resilient economic partnerships, aligning with Canada’s growing regional engagement. Cooperation in technology and minerals also supports emerging strategic technology alliances involving countries such as the United States, Japan and Australia. Economic Opportunities for Both Countries Canada can benefit from India’s large consumer market of over 1.4 billion people and rapidly expanding middle class, particularly in sectors such as education, technology and clean energy. India can benefit from Canadian expertise in natural resource extraction, clean energy technologies, agri-food systems and advanced research institutions. Education remains a major pillar of cooperation, with over 300,000 Indian students studying in Canada, contributing significantly to Canada’s education economy. Challenges in Bilateral Relations Diplomatic tensions related to extremist groups operating in Canada advocating separatism in India have previously strained bilateral relations and remain a sensitive issue. Trade negotiations under CEPA may face hurdles due to differences in agricultural subsidies, intellectual property regulations and labour mobility provisions. Supply-chain cooperation in critical minerals requires significant investments in mining infrastructure, refining facilities and transportation networks. Way Forward Accelerating negotiations on the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement could potentially expand bilateral trade to USD 15–20 billion within the next decade. Strengthening cooperation in critical minerals, clean energy and nuclear fuel supply will enhance long-term strategic interdependence between the two countries. Expanding collaboration in technology innovation, research exchanges and start-up ecosystems can deepen economic engagement beyond traditional sectors. Sustained diplomatic dialogue is essential to address political sensitivities while preserving the strategic and economic value of the partnership. Prelims Pointers Canada is among the top global uranium producers, supplying nuclear fuel for civilian reactors worldwide. Critical minerals include lithium, cobalt, nickel and rare earth elements used in batteries, semiconductors and renewable technologies. CEPA (Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement) is a broad trade agreement covering goods, services, investment and regulatory cooperation. India aims to achieve 100 GW nuclear energy capacity by 2047 as part of its long-term energy transition strategy.

Content Economic Stabilisation Fund WHO Pandemic Agreement & Pathogen Access–Benefit Sharing (PABS) Debate Paid Menstrual Leave in India – Legal Debate and Gender Equality Concerns Preah Vihear Temple Conflict (Cambodia–Thailand) Researchers publish first-of-its-kind checklist on fireflies in India As peptide therapy becomes a popular trend, experts call for caution Western Tragopan: King of birds Economic Stabilisation Fund Context The Union Government has allocated ₹57,381 crore for a proposed Economic Stabilisation Fund (ESF) through the Second Supplementary Demand for Grants (2025–26) to mitigate global economic shocks. The decision comes amid rising global crude oil prices nearing $100 per barrel, supply-chain disruptions and geopolitical instability caused by conflicts in West Asia. The Lok Sabha approved additional government expenditure of ₹2.01 lakh crore (net cash outgo) under the supplementary demands for grants for FY 2025–26. The government clarified that despite additional spending, India will adhere to its fiscal deficit target of 4.4% of GDP for 2025–26. Relevance   GS III – Economy / Macroeconomic Stability: Fiscal buffers, counter-cyclical fiscal policy, macroeconomic shock management, and fiscal deficit management. GS III – Energy Security: Impact of global crude oil price shocks on India (≈85% oil import dependence). Practice Question Discuss the role of fiscal stabilisation mechanisms in protecting emerging economies from global economic shocks. Examine the significance of the proposed Economic Stabilisation Fund in India. (250 words) What is the Economic Stabilisation Fund? The Economic Stabilisation Fund (ESF) is a proposed fiscal buffer created by the Government of India to respond quickly to external economic shocks and macroeconomic disruptions. The fund is designed to provide fiscal space for emergency spending during global crises, including energy shocks, financial instability, supply-chain disruptions or sectoral stress. By maintaining a dedicated fiscal reserve, the government can stabilise economic activity without significantly deviating from fiscal deficit targets. The ESF functions as a counter-cyclical fiscal tool, enabling the government to support the economy during periods of external uncertainty. Global Context Driving the ESF Rising Energy Prices Global crude oil prices have approached $100 per barrel, largely due to geopolitical tensions and supply disruptions in the West Asia region. India imports nearly 85% of its crude oil requirements, making its economy highly sensitive to global oil price fluctuations. Supply Chain Disruptions Ongoing geopolitical conflicts and trade tensions have disrupted global supply chains, affecting the availability and cost of critical commodities. Such disruptions can impact sectors like manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, electronics and fertilisers, which depend on global imports. Global Economic Uncertainty The global economy is facing uncertainty due to high inflation, tightening monetary policy in advanced economies, and geopolitical conflicts. Emerging economies like India must maintain fiscal buffers to manage capital flow volatility and external shocks. Fiscal Mechanism Behind the Allocation The ESF allocation was made through the Second Supplementary Demand for Grants, which allows the government to seek Parliament’s approval for additional spending during the financial year. The government sought approval for ₹2.81 lakh crore in additional expenditure, but expected additional receipts of ₹80,000 crore, reducing the net cash outgo to ₹2.01 lakh crore. Within this, ₹57,381 crore has been earmarked specifically for the Economic Stabilisation Fund. Supplementary demands ensure legislative oversight of government expenditure beyond the original budget estimates. Fiscal Deficit and Macroeconomic Stability The Union Budget for 2025–26 targets a fiscal deficit of 4.4% of GDP, continuing India’s fiscal consolidation roadmap. Fiscal deficit refers to the gap between government expenditure and its revenue receipts excluding borrowings. Maintaining the deficit target despite additional spending reflects the government’s focus on macroeconomic stability and fiscal discipline. India has been gradually reducing fiscal deficits from the pandemic-era peak of 9.2% of GDP in 2020–21. Role of Fiscal Buffers in Economic Management Fiscal buffers like the ESF help governments respond quickly to unexpected economic shocks without large borrowing requirements. Such funds can be used to support critical sectors such as energy, agriculture, infrastructure or financial institutions during crises. They also enhance investor confidence by demonstrating that the government has resources available to stabilise the economy. Economic Policy Context The ESF reflects India’s broader strategy of strengthening its macroeconomic resilience after the COVID-19 pandemic. Policy measures implemented since 2020 have focused on economic recovery, supply chain resilience and infrastructure investment. The government emphasises that these measures have helped India maintain high growth rates compared to many major economies. Similar Fiscal Stabilisation Mechanisms Globally Several countries maintain sovereign stabilisation funds or contingency reserves to manage economic volatility. Examples include: Norway’s Government Pension Fund Global, which stabilises the economy against oil price fluctuations. Chile’s Economic and Social Stabilization Fund, used to manage commodity price shocks. Russia’s National Wealth Fund, historically used to stabilise revenues from oil exports. These funds help governments smooth economic cycles and prevent fiscal stress during downturns. Significance for India India’s economy is increasingly integrated with global markets, making it vulnerable to external shocks such as commodity price spikes and supply disruptions. Establishing a fiscal buffer like the ESF can improve economic resilience and policy flexibility. The fund also signals India’s commitment to responsible fiscal management while maintaining growth momentum. Challenges and Concerns Maintaining a stabilisation fund requires sustained fiscal discipline and adequate government revenues. Large fiscal reserves may face pressure to be used for politically driven expenditures rather than genuine emergencies. Ensuring transparency in the governance and utilisation of such funds will be essential for credibility. Way Forward The government should establish clear guidelines for the operation and utilisation of the Economic Stabilisation Fund, ensuring it is used only for genuine economic shocks. Strengthening fiscal transparency and parliamentary oversight will enhance accountability. India should continue efforts toward fiscal consolidation while maintaining strategic fiscal buffers. Diversifying energy sources and strengthening domestic production can reduce vulnerability to global oil price shocks. Prelims Pointers Economic Stabilisation Fund allocation: ₹57,381 crore (2025–26). Approved through: Second Supplementary Demand for Grants. Fiscal deficit target for 2025–26: 4.4% of GDP. India imports about 85% of its crude oil requirement. WHO Pandemic Agreement & Pathogen Access–Benefit Sharing (PABS) Debate Context India, along with a coalition of developing countries called the “Group for Equity,” is advocating a strong benefit-sharing mechanism in negotiations over the WHO Pandemic Agreement rulebook in Geneva (2026). The discussion centres on the Pathogen Access and Benefit-Sharing (PABS) system, which governs how countries share pathogen samples and genetic sequence data during global health emergencies. Developing countries argue that nations providing pathogen materials must receive legally binding benefits, including technology access, affordable vaccines, and financial returns from commercial products. The debate reflects concerns arising from the COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2023), when vaccine access was highly unequal despite many developing countries sharing virus samples. Relevance GS II – International Relations / Global Governance: Global health diplomacy, WHO pandemic governance framework, equity debates between Global North and Global South. GS III – Science & Technology / Health Security: Pathogen sharing, genomic data exchange, vaccine R&D cooperation. Practice Question The COVID-19 pandemic exposed deep inequities in global health governance. Examine how the WHO Pandemic Agreement seeks to address these challenges. (250 words) Background: WHO Pandemic Agreement The WHO Pandemic Agreement was adopted by the World Health Assembly on 20 May 2025 to strengthen global cooperation on pandemic prevention, preparedness and response. The agreement emerged after COVID-19 exposed major gaps in global health governance, including delayed data sharing, supply chain disruptions and unequal vaccine distribution. The treaty aims to establish a legally binding international framework to improve disease surveillance, pathogen sharing, medical supply chains and equitable access to vaccines and treatments. After adoption of the framework agreement, countries are now negotiating the operational rulebook and implementation mechanisms, particularly the PABS system. What is the PABS System? Pathogen Access and Benefit-Sharing (PABS) is a mechanism designed to regulate how pathogen samples and genetic sequence information are shared globally during outbreaks. Countries detecting new pathogens must share biological samples (viruses, bacteria) and digital genetic sequence data with international laboratory networks to accelerate vaccine and drug development. In return, the system seeks to ensure fair distribution of benefits such as vaccines, medicines, diagnostics and financial returns. The PABS framework is intended to prevent a repeat of the vaccine inequity seen during the COVID-19 pandemic, where wealthier countries secured most early vaccine supplies. India’s Position in the Negotiations India supports the demand of the Group for Equity coalition, which includes several developing and Global South countries advocating stronger benefit-sharing provisions. The coalition insists that every entity using pathogen samples or sequence data must sign legally binding contracts that guarantee equitable benefit-sharing. India argues that pathogen data sharing should not become a one-way flow of biological resources from developing countries to pharmaceutical companies in developed nations. The proposal reflects India’s broader emphasis on equitable global health governance and technology access for developing nations. Proposed Benefit-Sharing Mechanisms Monetary Benefits Pharmaceutical companies or institutions that commercialise products derived from pathogen materials must pay a percentage of their annual revenue into a global benefit-sharing system. These funds would support pandemic preparedness programmes, vaccine manufacturing capacity and healthcare infrastructure in developing countries. Non-Monetary Benefits Manufacturers must reserve a portion of real-time pandemic product production for WHO, ensuring global access during emergencies. At least 10% of pandemic-related products (vaccines, medicines or diagnostics) should be donated to the WHO for distribution to low-income countries. Pharmaceutical companies may be required to provide non-exclusive licences to manufacturers in developing countries, enabling local production during pandemics. Pandemic-related products should be supplied to developing countries at affordable or not-for-profit prices during global health emergencies. Importance of Traceability Developing countries insist that both physical pathogen samples and digital genetic sequence information should be traceable back to the country of origin. Traceability ensures transparency in how biological materials are used and allows countries to claim benefits when commercial products are developed from their pathogen data. This mechanism is similar to Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) systems under biodiversity treaties. Lessons from the COVID-19 Pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic exposed major inequalities in global health systems. By early 2021, high-income countries had secured over 70% of global vaccine supplies, despite representing only a fraction of the world’s population. Many developing countries that shared virus samples and genomic data faced delays in accessing vaccines, therapeutics and diagnostic tools. The experience strengthened calls for equitable global health governance frameworks. Governance Structure of the Pandemic Agreement The Intergovernmental Working Group (IGWG) has been tasked with negotiating operational details of the Pandemic Agreement. Once finalised, the agreement must be adopted by the World Health Assembly and then ratified by individual countries. After ratification, it will function as a legally binding international treaty on pandemic preparedness.  Global Political Economy of Pathogen Sharing Developed countries and pharmaceutical companies often argue for open scientific data sharing to accelerate innovation and vaccine development. Developing countries highlight concerns of “biological resource extraction”, where pathogen samples are used for profit without equitable returns. The debate reflects broader tensions between global public health cooperation and intellectual property rights regimes. Relation with Existing Global Agreements The PABS system has conceptual similarities with the Nagoya Protocol (2010) under the Convention on Biological Diversity, which regulates access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing. It also interacts with global intellectual property rules under the TRIPS Agreement of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Ensuring compatibility between public health needs and intellectual property frameworks remains a major challenge. Significance for Global Health Governance The Pandemic Agreement aims to strengthen early warning systems, data sharing and global cooperation during health emergencies. Equitable benefit-sharing mechanisms can improve trust among countries, encouraging faster reporting of outbreaks and pathogen discoveries. Without fairness mechanisms, countries may hesitate to share pathogen data quickly, potentially delaying global response efforts. Challenges in Implementation Pharmaceutical companies may resist revenue-sharing obligations or compulsory licensing requirements, citing innovation costs. Differences between developed and developing countries on intellectual property protection and technology transfer could delay consensus. Establishing global monitoring systems for pathogen traceability and benefit distribution will require strong institutional capacity. Way Forward A balanced PABS framework must ensure rapid pathogen sharing while guaranteeing equitable access to vaccines and treatments. Strengthening regional vaccine manufacturing hubs in developing countries, including India, can improve global health resilience. International agreements must reconcile public health priorities with intellectual property protections, ensuring innovation and accessibility coexist. India can play a leadership role in Global South health diplomacy, advocating fair access to pandemic technologies. Prelims Pointers WHO Pandemic Agreement adopted: May 20, 2025 by the World Health Assembly. PABS: Pathogen Access and Benefit-Sharing system governing sharing of pathogen samples and genetic sequence data. IGWG: Intergovernmental Working Group negotiating implementation rules of the agreement. CEDAW / Nagoya Protocol comparison: Similar concept of benefit-sharing for biological resources. Paid Menstrual Leave in India – Legal Debate and Gender Equality Concerns Context The Supreme Court of India expressed reservations about making paid menstrual leave a mandatory statutory right, cautioning that it may unintentionally harm women’s career prospects. The Bench led by Chief Justice Surya Kant observed that compulsory menstrual leave laws could lead employers to avoid assigning important responsibilities to women, affecting professional advancement. The Court encouraged voluntary policies by States and private employers, rather than a legally enforceable mandate. The debate arose from a Public Interest Litigation seeking menstrual leave under the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, arguing that menstrual pain leave is part of women’s right to dignity under Article 21 of the Constitution. Relevance   GS II – Polity / Social Justice: Constitutional debate involving Articles 14, 15, and 21, gender equality, labour rights and workplace policies. GS I – Society / Women Issues: Menstrual health, gender norms, workplace inclusion and stigma. Practice Question Debate the merits and concerns associated with introducing statutory menstrual leave in India. (250 words) What is Menstrual Leave? Menstrual leave refers to paid or unpaid leave granted to women during menstruation, particularly when experiencing severe symptoms such as dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation). Dysmenorrhea affects a large proportion of women globally; medical studies suggest around 50–90% of menstruating women experience menstrual pain, with 10–20% facing severe symptoms affecting work productivity. The concept aims to recognise menstruation as a legitimate health condition requiring workplace accommodation. Constitutional and Legal Dimensions Article 21 – Right to Life and Dignity Advocates argue that menstrual leave aligns with Article 21 of the Constitution, which protects the right to life, dignity and health. Menstrual pain, when severe, can affect physical well-being and productivity, making workplace support a matter of health rights. Article 14 and 15 – Equality and Non-Discrimination Article 14 guarantees equality before law, while Article 15 prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex. Supporters argue menstrual leave promotes substantive equality, recognising biological differences between men and women. Critics argue that mandatory menstrual leave may reinforce gender stereotypes in employment, leading to indirect discrimination. Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 The petitioner sought menstrual leave within the Maternity Benefit Act framework, which currently provides 26 weeks of paid maternity leave for women employees in India. The Act focuses primarily on pregnancy, childbirth and post-natal care, and does not currently recognise menstruation-related leave. Supreme Court’s Concerns The Supreme Court cautioned that mandatory menstrual leave laws may unintentionally create barriers to women’s employment, particularly in competitive sectors. Employers may perceive women as less reliable employees due to additional mandatory leave obligations, affecting hiring decisions. The Court highlighted practical concerns that women may be denied leadership roles or important assignments if employers anticipate periodic leave. The judiciary emphasised the need to consider economic realities and labour market dynamics alongside gender rights frameworks. State-Level Policies in India Some Indian States have introduced voluntary menstrual leave policies for students or employees. Odisha Odisha became the first Indian State in 1992 to introduce menstrual leave, allowing one day of leave per month for women employees in government institutions. Kerala Kerala introduced menstrual leave for female students in State-run universities, allowing up to 60 days of leave annually. Karnataka Karnataka has proposed menstrual leave policies for women employees in certain sectors, although implementation varies. Corporate and Institutional Initiatives Several private companies and institutions in India have voluntarily adopted menstrual leave policies. Examples include: Zomato (2020) introduced 10 days of paid menstrual leave annually for women and transgender employees. Some universities such as National Law Institute University (Bhopal) and Maharashtra National Law University (Aurangabad) have implemented menstrual leave policies for students. These voluntary models demonstrate institutional flexibility without statutory mandates. Global Practices Several countries have implemented menstrual leave policies through legislation or workplace practices. Japan introduced menstrual leave as early as 1947 under labour laws, though most leave is unpaid. South Korea provides one day of menstrual leave per month, though it may be unpaid. Indonesia allows two days of menstrual leave per month under labour law. Zambia has a policy known as “Mother’s Day”, allowing one day of menstrual leave each month without requiring medical proof. Countries like the United Kingdom and Spain are exploring broader workplace policies for menstrual health. Social and Economic Dimensions Menstrual stigma remains widespread in many societies, including India, where menstruation is often treated as a taboo subject. Workplace policies recognising menstrual health may help normalise conversations about women’s health and reduce stigma. However, mandatory leave provisions may inadvertently reinforce perceptions that women are less productive workers, affecting labour market participation. India’s female labour force participation rate remains around 37% (Periodic Labour Force Survey 2023), making employment equity an important policy concern. Ethical and Gender Equality Debate Arguments in Favour Recognises menstrual health as a legitimate medical and workplace issue. Promotes substantive gender equality by accommodating biological differences. Encourages workplace sensitivity and health-oriented policies. Arguments Against Mandatory leave may create unintended hiring discrimination against women. Could reinforce gender stereotypes about women’s productivity. Employers may see additional leave obligations as economic costs, affecting employment opportunities. Way Forward Encourage flexible workplace policies, including optional menstrual leave, work-from-home options and flexible schedules. Promote menstrual health awareness and workplace sensitisation programmes to reduce stigma. Introduce gender-neutral health leave policies that allow employees to take leave for medical conditions without stigma. Strengthen access to menstrual hygiene facilities, healthcare and counselling in workplaces and educational institutions. Ensure policies strike a balance between protecting women’s health and preventing labour market discrimination. Prelims Pointers Maternity Benefit Act, 1961: Provides 26 weeks of paid maternity leave for women employees. CEDAW: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, ratified by India in 1993. Odisha (1992): First Indian State to introduce menstrual leave for women employees. Preah Vihear Temple Conflict (Cambodia–Thailand)  Context The Preah Vihear Temple, located in the Dangrek Mountains on the Cambodia–Thailand border, has again drawn international attention after renewed tensions and military clashes between the two countries. Recent fighting reportedly caused damage to parts of the 1,000-year-old sandstone temple complex, raising concerns over the safety of cultural heritage sites located in contested border regions. The dispute reflects the long-standing territorial conflict between Cambodia and Thailand over the temple and surrounding land, despite earlier legal rulings by international courts. Relevance GS I – Culture / Art & Architecture: Khmer temple architecture, Hindu cultural influence in Southeast Asia, heritage conservation. GS II – International Relations: Territorial disputes, ICJ rulings, and heritage diplomacy in Southeast Asia. Practice Question Territorial disputes involving cultural heritage sites often combine geopolitics with nationalism. Discuss with reference to the Preah Vihear Temple dispute. (250 words) Location and Geographic Significance Preah Vihear Temple is situated on a cliff in the Dangrek mountain range, forming part of the natural boundary between Cambodia and Thailand. The temple complex overlooks the Cambodian plains from a height of about 500 metres, giving it strategic visibility and historical importance. Its location near the border has made the temple a symbolic and geopolitical flashpoint in Southeast Asia. Historical Background of the Temple Preah Vihear was constructed during the Khmer Empire between the 9th and 12th centuries, primarily under the reigns of kings such as Suryavarman I and Suryavarman II. The temple was originally dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, reflecting the strong influence of Shaivism in early Khmer civilisation. Over time, like many temples in the region, it evolved into a Buddhist place of worship, reflecting cultural transitions in Southeast Asia. Architecturally, the temple is designed as a series of stone pavilions connected by a long axial causeway, aligned along a north–south axis up the mountain slope. UNESCO World Heritage Status Preah Vihear Temple was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008, recognised for its outstanding Khmer architecture and historical significance. The temple is considered one of the most remarkable examples of Khmer temple architecture outside the Angkor complex. UNESCO recognition further intensified political tensions, as Thailand initially objected to Cambodia’s nomination due to unresolved border disputes. Cambodia–Thailand Border Dispute The territorial dispute originates from colonial-era maps created during French rule in Indochina in the early 20th century. The 1907 Franco-Siamese treaty maps placed the temple on the Cambodian side, although Thailand contested the interpretation of the boundary. In 1962, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled that the Preah Vihear Temple belongs to Cambodia, though the surrounding land remained disputed. The ruling did not completely resolve the dispute, as Thailand continued to claim nearby territory around the temple. Renewed Legal Clarification In 2013, the International Court of Justice reaffirmed its earlier decision, clarifying that Cambodia has sovereignty not only over the temple but also over the immediate surrounding promontory. The ruling required Thailand to withdraw military forces from the disputed area, though tensions occasionally resurface due to nationalist politics. Strategic and Political Dimensions The temple has become a symbol of national pride in both Cambodia and Thailand, making the dispute politically sensitive domestically. Border tensions often escalate during periods of political instability or nationalist mobilization in either country. The area around the temple has historically been militarised with landmines and troop deployments, reflecting its strategic importance. Cultural Heritage at Risk Armed clashes near heritage sites pose serious risks to irreplaceable archaeological structures and historical monuments. Damage to stone carvings, pavilions and corridors at Preah Vihear threatens a millennium-old cultural legacy of the Khmer civilisation. Cultural heritage destruction during conflicts has become a global concern, similar to incidents seen in Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan in recent decades. Importance of Khmer Architecture Khmer temple architecture is known for its axial layout, sandstone construction and elaborate relief carvings depicting mythological and religious narratives. Preah Vihear represents a mountain temple design, symbolising Mount Meru, the sacred cosmic mountain in Hindu cosmology. The temple complex consists of multiple terraces, gopuras (gateway towers) and long galleries, showcasing advanced architectural planning. International Law and Cultural Heritage Protection International conventions such as the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict seek to safeguard heritage sites during conflicts. UNESCO and international heritage bodies often intervene diplomatically to promote preservation of cultural sites in disputed territories. However, enforcement depends largely on the cooperation of sovereign states. Broader Geopolitical Lessons The Preah Vihear dispute highlights how colonial-era boundary demarcations continue to influence modern territorial conflicts. It demonstrates the complex intersection between heritage conservation, nationalism and international law. Cultural monuments located near disputed borders often become symbols of sovereignty and identity, intensifying geopolitical tensions. Prelims Pointers Preah Vihear Temple: Khmer temple dedicated originally to Shiva. Location: Dangrek Mountains on Cambodia–Thailand border. UNESCO World Heritage Site: Inscribed in 2008. ICJ ruling (1962): Temple awarded to Cambodia. ICJ clarification (2013): Cambodia’s sovereignty reaffirmed over the surrounding area. Researchers publish first-of-its-kind checklist on fireflies in India Context Researchers have published India’s first comprehensive checklist of fireflies, consolidating over 260 years of scientific records from 1881 to 2025, addressing long-standing gaps in insect biodiversity documentation. The study published in the journal Zootaxa (March 2026) documents 92 firefly species belonging to 27 genera, highlighting the diversity of bioluminescent beetles across India. The research indicates that over 60% of India’s firefly species are endemic, meaning they occur naturally only within India’s ecosystems. Many species were originally described in the 19th century and have not been revisited in modern taxonomic studies, creating major gaps in scientific understanding of their distribution and conservation status. Relevance   GS III – Environment / Biodiversity: Insect biodiversity documentation, endemic species, conservation of bioluminescent beetles (Lampyridae). GS III – Ecology: Fireflies as bioindicators of ecosystem health, threats from light pollution, pesticides and habitat loss. Practice Question Why are insect biodiversity studies crucial for ecosystem conservation? Discuss with reference to recent research on firefly diversity in India. (250 words) What are Fireflies?  Fireflies are bioluminescent beetles belonging to the family Lampyridae within the order Coleoptera, which also includes other beetles such as ladybirds and weevils. The defining feature of fireflies is bioluminescence, the ability to produce light through a chemical reaction involving luciferin, luciferase enzymes, oxygen and ATP. The light produced by fireflies serves primarily for mating communication, where males and females exchange species-specific flashing patterns. Fireflies are found mainly in humid habitats such as forests, wetlands, grasslands and riverbanks, where larvae feed on small invertebrates like snails and worms. Key Findings of the Firefly Checklist Study The study documented 92 firefly species across 27 genera in India, representing the most comprehensive inventory of the country’s firefly diversity to date. More than 60% of the recorded species are endemic, highlighting India as an important centre of diversity for fireflies in South Asia. The research relied on scientific records dating back to 1881, including museum specimens, taxonomic literature and modern biodiversity databases. Many firefly species were described during colonial-era natural history surveys but never revisited with modern taxonomic techniques, leaving gaps in classification and distribution mapping. Geographic Distribution in India Fireflies occur widely across India but are particularly abundant in Western Ghats, Northeastern Himalayas, and moist tropical forests, where suitable ecological conditions support their life cycle. The Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot is believed to host a significant proportion of endemic firefly species due to its high rainfall and forest cover. Seasonal firefly displays are commonly observed during the pre-monsoon and monsoon months, especially in forested and wetland ecosystems. Ecological Role of Fireflies Fireflies act as bioindicators of healthy ecosystems, as their populations depend on intact habitats with minimal pollution and stable moisture conditions. Larval fireflies are predators of soft-bodied invertebrates such as snails and slugs, contributing to ecological pest control in natural ecosystems. Adult fireflies play roles in food chains, serving as prey for birds, amphibians and reptiles. Their presence reflects ecosystem integrity, low pesticide use and healthy wetland or forest habitats. Bioluminescence Mechanism Firefly light is produced through a biochemical reaction involving luciferin (a light-emitting molecule), luciferase (an enzyme), oxygen and ATP. The reaction generates “cold light”, meaning nearly 90–100% of the energy is converted into visible light with minimal heat loss, making it highly energy-efficient. Bioluminescence has applications in biotechnology and medical research, including molecular imaging and disease diagnostics. Threats to Firefly Populations Habitat Loss Rapid urbanisation, deforestation and wetland degradation are reducing habitats necessary for firefly breeding and larval development. Conversion of forests and wetlands into agriculture, infrastructure and tourism facilities has fragmented firefly habitats. Light Pollution Artificial lighting in urban and peri-urban areas disrupts mating communication signals between fireflies, reducing successful reproduction. Increasing LED street lighting and tourism lighting in forest areas have been linked to declining firefly populations globally. Pesticide Use Intensive use of chemical pesticides and insecticides in agriculture kills both adult fireflies and larvae. Pesticides also reduce the availability of snails and small invertebrates, which serve as the primary food source for firefly larvae. Climate Change Changes in rainfall patterns and temperature may alter breeding cycles and habitat suitability, especially in fragile ecosystems like the Western Ghats. Conservation Significance The new checklist provides a baseline dataset for future biodiversity monitoring and conservation planning. Documenting endemic species helps identify priority regions for habitat protection and ecological research. Fireflies can serve as flagship species for conservation of wetlands, forests and dark-sky habitats. Relevance for Biodiversity Research in India India is recognised as one of the 17 megadiverse countries, hosting approximately 8% of the world’s biodiversity. However, insect diversity remains poorly documented compared to vertebrates, with many species yet to be discovered or studied. Comprehensive taxonomic inventories such as the firefly checklist contribute to strengthening India’s biodiversity databases and conservation strategies. Way Forward Conduct modern taxonomic studies using DNA barcoding and molecular tools to verify species identities and discover new firefly species. Establish long-term monitoring programmes in biodiversity hotspots such as the Western Ghats and Northeast India. Reduce light pollution in ecologically sensitive areas through dark-sky conservation measures. Promote community-based conservation and firefly festivals that raise awareness while protecting habitats. Prelims Pointers Fireflies belong to family Lampyridae under order Coleoptera (beetles). The bioluminescence reaction involves luciferin, luciferase, oxygen and ATP. India’s first firefly checklist documents 92 species across 27 genera. More than 60% of recorded firefly species in India are endemic. Study published in Zootaxa journal (March 2026). As peptide therapy becomes a popular trend, experts call for caution  Context Peptide-based therapeutics are gaining global attention due to expanding clinical applications in treating diseases such as diabetes, cancer, hormonal disorders and metabolic conditions. Currently, more than 80 peptide drugs have been approved globally, while over 150 peptide-based medicines are undergoing clinical trials, indicating rapid growth in precision medicine research. The growing popularity of GLP-1 peptide drugs for obesity and diabetes management has expanded interest in peptide therapies into fitness, wellness and anti-ageing markets, raising regulatory and safety concerns. Medical experts warn that unregulated marketing and misuse of experimental peptides in biohacking and cosmetic sectors could lead to serious health risks without adequate clinical evidence. Relevance GS III – Science & Technology / Biotechnology: Peptide therapeutics, precision medicine, biotechnology innovations. GS III – Health Sector: Applications in diabetes, obesity (GLP-1 drugs), cancer treatment and regenerative medicine. Practice Question Peptide therapeutics represent a new frontier in precision medicine. Discuss their medical applications and associated regulatory challenges. (250 words) What are Peptides? Peptides are short chains of amino acids, typically containing 2–50 amino acids, which function as biological signalling molecules regulating physiological processes in the human body. They act as messengers controlling hormone secretion, metabolism, immune responses and tissue repair, playing a crucial role in cellular communication. Because peptides bind to specific receptors on cells, they can influence particular biological pathways with high precision, making them suitable for targeted drug design. Peptide drugs often mimic natural biological signals produced in the body, allowing them to regulate specific physiological processes with fewer unintended effects. Mechanism of Peptide Therapies Peptide medicines work by binding to specific receptors on target cells, triggering biochemical pathways that regulate metabolism, hormonal activity or immune responses. Their targeted mechanism enables precision medicine approaches, where treatments are tailored to influence specific disease pathways rather than affecting multiple systems simultaneously. Many peptide medicines are administered through injections or subcutaneous delivery, because peptides are easily broken down by digestive enzymes if taken orally. Due to their structural similarity to natural molecules, peptide drugs often show higher biological compatibility and improved therapeutic specificity. Global Status of Peptide Therapeutics According to global pharmaceutical data, peptide drugs account for around 9% of recently approved medicines by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Over 80 peptide drugs are currently approved worldwide, covering treatments for metabolic disorders, endocrine diseases, cancer and infectious diseases. The global pipeline includes more than 150 peptide-based drugs in various stages of clinical trials, reflecting rapid innovation in biotechnology and drug development. The global peptide therapeutics market is projected to exceed USD 50 billion by 2030, driven by advances in biotechnology and rising demand for targeted therapies. Major Medical Applications Metabolic Disorders Peptide drugs such as GLP-1 receptor agonists are widely used in treating type-2 diabetes and obesity, helping regulate blood sugar levels and appetite. Examples include drugs similar to insulin analogues, which are peptide-based medicines routinely used in diabetes management worldwide. Oncology (Cancer Treatment) Peptide therapies can target tumour-specific receptors, allowing drugs or radioactive agents to be delivered directly to cancer cells. This targeted delivery reduces damage to healthy cells, making peptide therapies promising tools in precision oncology. Endocrine Disorders Peptides are widely used in treating growth hormone deficiencies, infertility and thyroid disorders, as many hormones naturally exist as peptide molecules. Hormonal peptide drugs help regulate endocrine signalling pathways responsible for metabolism and reproductive health. Regenerative Medicine Experimental peptides are being studied for their ability to stimulate tissue regeneration in muscles, tendons and nerves, offering potential therapies for injuries and degenerative diseases. Research is also exploring peptides for wound healing, bone regeneration and nerve repair, especially in sports medicine and orthopaedics. Infectious Disease Research Scientists are developing synthetic antimicrobial peptides capable of destroying antibiotic-resistant bacteria, offering potential solutions to the global antimicrobial resistance crisis. Research institutions, including Indian laboratories such as IISc Bengaluru, have been developing experimental peptides targeting drug-resistant pathogens. Applications in Dermatology and Cosmetic Medicine Peptides are increasingly used in dermatology and aesthetic medicine, where they may stimulate collagen production, improve skin repair and support anti-ageing treatments. Cosmetic formulations containing peptides aim to reduce wrinkles, improve skin elasticity and promote tissue regeneration. However, many cosmetic peptide treatments lack large-scale clinical trials confirming long-term safety and effectiveness. Risks and Concerns Unregulated Online Markets Many peptides marketed online as “research chemicals” or biohacking compounds are not approved medicines and may contain impurities or incorrect dosages. Lack of regulatory oversight increases the risk of unsafe formulations and counterfeit products entering the market. Hormonal and Metabolic Disturbances Because peptides influence hormonal pathways, misuse may lead to endocrine imbalance, metabolic disturbances or abnormal hormone levels. Improper use may increase risks of cardiovascular complications, metabolic disorders or hormonal dysfunction. Self-Administration Risks Some peptide therapies require self-injection, increasing the risk of infection, incorrect dosing or complications if used without medical supervision. Experts warn that self-injecting experimental peptides can pose serious health risks, especially when used outside clinical settings. Regulatory and Ethical Challenges Regulatory authorities such as the U.S. FDA and European Medicines Agency (EMA) require rigorous clinical trials before peptide drugs can be approved for medical use. However, the rapid expansion of wellness and anti-ageing industries has outpaced regulatory frameworks in many countries. There is a growing need for global regulatory oversight to prevent misuse of experimental peptide compounds. Significance for Future Medicine Peptide therapeutics represent a major pillar of precision medicine, which aims to design treatments targeting specific molecular pathways involved in diseases. Advances in biotechnology, genomics and synthetic biology are accelerating the development of novel peptide drugs. Peptides are increasingly being explored as next-generation therapeutics for complex diseases including cancer, metabolic disorders and neurodegenerative conditions. Way Forward Governments and regulatory agencies should strengthen clinical trial regulations and safety monitoring for peptide therapies, especially those marketed through wellness industries. Greater investment in biotechnology research and peptide drug development can enhance innovation in targeted medicine. Public awareness campaigns are needed to discourage self-medication and unregulated peptide use in fitness and cosmetic markets. Collaboration between pharmaceutical companies, medical institutions and regulatory agencies is essential to ensure safe and evidence-based use of peptide medicines. Prelims Pointers Peptides: Short chains of amino acids that function as biological signalling molecules. More than 80 peptide drugs are approved globally, with over 150 in clinical trials. GLP-1 peptide drugs are widely used in diabetes and obesity treatment. Peptide medicines often require injection-based delivery because they degrade in the digestive system. Western Tragopan: King of birds Context The Western Tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus) has drawn renewed conservation attention due to declining populations caused by forest fragmentation, infrastructure development, and human disturbance in the Western Himalayas. Current estimates suggest only 2,500–3,500 individuals remain globally, making it one of the rarest pheasants in the world, with populations continuing to decline across its fragmented range. The Great Himalayan National Park (GHNP) in Himachal Pradesh supports more than 500 breeding pairs, making it the most significant stronghold for the species. Conservationists are urging stronger monitoring and habitat protection as infrastructure expansion, including hydropower projects and road tunnels such as the Atal (Rohtang) Tunnel corridor, continues to fragment its habitat. Relevance GS III – Environment / Biodiversity: Conservation of endemic Himalayan species, habitat fragmentation and climate change threats. Practice Question Discuss the conservation challenges facing Himalayan endemic species with reference to the Western Tragopan. (250 words) Taxonomy and Biological Characteristics The Western Tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus) belongs to the family Phasianidae, which also includes pheasants, partridges, and junglefowl. Adult males measure approximately 68–73 cm in length, displaying distinctive dark plumage dotted with white ocelli and vibrant colours including a crimson hindneck patch, blue throat, and orange fore-neck. During the breeding season, males exhibit unique fleshy blue horns and inflatable throat lappets, earning the species the name “horned pheasant.” The bird produces a distinctive nasal call “khuwaah” during courtship displays, which plays a role in attracting mates in dense forest habitats. Geographic Distribution The Western Tragopan is endemic to the Western Himalayas, occurring only in India and Pakistan, making it a species of high regional conservation importance. Its distribution stretches from Swat Valley in Pakistan through Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and into Uttarakhand in India. In India, key habitats include Great Himalayan National Park, Daranghati Wildlife Sanctuary, and Rupi Bhaba Wildlife Sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh. Habitat and Ecology The species inhabits temperate and subalpine forests at elevations between 2,400 and 3,600 metres, occasionally descending to around 2,000 metres during winter months. Preferred habitats include dense oak, fir, spruce and deodar forests with thick undergrowth and bamboo thickets, which provide cover from predators and human disturbance. The tragopan feeds on berries, leaves, seeds, bamboo shoots, fallen fruits and insects, making it an omnivorous species that contributes to forest ecosystem dynamics. Breeding Behaviour Breeding season typically occurs between May and June, when males perform elaborate courtship displays involving horn extension and colourful throat lappets. The female lays three to six eggs per clutch, which are incubated for approximately 28–30 days, while the male remains nearby to guard the nesting area. Nesting sites vary, with some birds nesting on the ground under dense vegetation, while others use tree cavities or low branches, depending on local habitat conditions. Conservation Status The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists the Western Tragopan as Vulnerable, due to its restricted distribution and declining population. The species is also included in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, providing it the highest level of legal protection in India. BirdLife International has also recognised it as a species of high conservation concern, due to small and fragmented populations. Major Threats Habitat Loss and Fragmentation Expansion of hydropower projects, road networks and tunnels in Himalayan regions has fragmented the bird’s forest habitats and disturbed breeding areas. Infrastructure projects such as road expansion and the Atal (Rohtang) Tunnel corridor in Himachal Pradesh have increased tourism and human activity in previously undisturbed areas. Human Disturbance Increased tourism, grazing pressure and forest resource extraction have disrupted breeding habitats and reduced suitable nesting areas. Human presence during the breeding season can lead to nest abandonment and reduced reproductive success. Climate Change Climate change is shifting vegetation zones and altering forest composition in the Himalayas, potentially reducing suitable habitat for species dependent on specific altitudinal ecosystems. Changes in snow cover, temperature patterns and precipitation may affect the availability of food sources and breeding habitats. Importance of Protected Areas The Great Himalayan National Park (GHNP), a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2014, supports the most stable population of Western Tragopan. The park provides dense temperate forests and minimal human disturbance, creating ideal conditions for breeding and survival. Other protected habitats such as Daranghati and Rupi Bhaba Wildlife Sanctuaries also serve as important refuges for the species. Ecological and Cultural Significance The Western Tragopan is locally known as “Jujurana” meaning “king of birds” in the Kullu region of Himachal Pradesh, reflecting its cultural significance among Himalayan communities. The species serves as an indicator species for the health of temperate Himalayan forests, as it requires intact forest ecosystems with minimal disturbance. Protecting the tragopan indirectly supports conservation of associated Himalayan biodiversity including musk deer, Himalayan monal and snow leopard habitats. Conservation Measures Required Conservation experts recommend granting the Western Tragopan flagship species status to strengthen protection of Himalayan temperate forests. Long-term ecological monitoring in habitats such as Great Himalayan National Park is necessary to track population trends and habitat conditions. Researchers suggest radio-tagging individuals to better understand migration patterns, breeding success and habitat use. Systematic surveys across the Pir Panjal range and other under-studied Himalayan regions are required to identify additional populations and conservation priorities. Broader Environmental Significance The Western Himalayas are recognised as part of the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot, one of the most biologically diverse yet threatened ecosystems in the world. Conservation of species such as the Western Tragopan contributes to the protection of fragile mountain ecosystems that regulate water resources, climate and biodiversity across South Asia. Prelims Pointers Western Tragopan scientific name: Tragopan melanocephalus. Common name: Jujurana or horned pheasant. IUCN status: Vulnerable. Family: Phasianidae. Habitat: Temperate and subalpine forests of the Western Himalayas (2,400–3,600 m). Key Indian habitats: Great Himalayan National Park, Daranghati Wildlife Sanctuary, Rupi Bhaba Wildlife Sanctuary.