Content Bhadrakali Temple Inscription & Somnath Legacy National Youth Day 2026 Bhadrakali Temple Inscription & Somnath Legacy Why in News? PIB highlighted a 12th-century Bhadrakali Temple inscription at Prabhas Patan. The inscription chronicles Somnath Temple’s reconstruction history, especially Solanki ruler Kumarapala’s role (1169 CE). Reinforces archaeological, epigraphic, and cultural continuity of Somnath amid repeated destruction and revival. Relevance GS I (Art & Culture / History): Temple architecture, epigraphy, Solanki dynasty. GS I (Indian Heritage & Culture): Sacred geography, continuity of religious traditions. GS II (Culture & Governance): Role of state patronage in heritage conservation. Chronology & Dating Inscription date: 1169 CE Valabhi Samvat 850 Vikram Samvat 1255 Period: Solanki (Chaulukya) dynasty, Gujarat’s medieval golden phase. Nature of the Inscription Eulogistic epigraph. Dedicated to: Param Pashupata Acharya Shriman Bhavabrihaspati. Spiritual preceptor of Maharajadhiraj Kumarapala (Anhilwad Patan). Language & tradition: Reflects Shaiva–Pashupata lineage. Combines mythology + historical memory (typical of medieval inscriptions). Somnath Temple Reconstruction Narrative Satya Yuga: Built by Chandra (Soma) in gold. Treta Yuga: Built by Ravana in silver. Dvapara Yuga: Built by Shri Krishna in wood. Kali Yuga: Bhimdev Solanki: Artistic stone temple (4th temple). Kumarapala (1169 CE): 5th reconstruction on same sacred site. Demonstrates how epigraphy blends sacred cosmology with verifiable medieval history. Role of Solanki Rulers Bhimdev Solanki: Constructed major stone phase of Somnath. Siddharaj Jaysinh: Known for justice, administrative consolidation. Kumarapala: Patron of temple revival after destruction. Symbol of state-backed religious reconstruction. Result: Prabhas Patan emerged as a hub of religion, architecture, literature. Archaeological & Architectural Significance Confirms: Continuity of sacred geography despite invasions. Use of Solanki-era architectural idioms. Reinforces Somnath as: A palimpsest site—layers of destruction and reconstruction. Museum preservation: Converts ruins into historical testimony, not mere relics. Cultural & Civilisational Dimensions Represents: Sanatan Dharma’s resilience. Valor, devotion, and cultural self-respect. Inscriptions as: Primary sources validating India’s temple-revival traditions. Symbolism: Somnath as a civilisational constant, not a static monument. Takeaway The Bhadrakali inscription at Prabhas Patan is a crucial epigraphic source linking mythology, Solanki-era statecraft, and the enduring civilisational resilience of the Somnath Temple. National Youth Day 2026 Why in News? National Youth Day observed on 12 January 2026, commemorating Swami Vivekananda’s birth anniversary. PIB outlines India’s youth empowerment architecture aligned with Viksit Bharat @2047. Highlights scale, outcomes, and convergence across youth engagement, skilling, employment, entrepreneurship, health, and civic participation. Relevance GS II (Governance & Social Justice): Youth policy, skilling, employment, health. GS III (Economy): Human capital, labour markets, entrepreneurship. Demographic Context Over 65% of India’s population below 35 years. Youth as: Demographic dividend Key drivers of economic growth, social cohesion, and governance renewal. Policy focus: Youth as partners, not mere beneficiaries. Institutional Framework Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports (MYAS). Whole-of-government approach: MYAS, MSDE, MeitY, MoHFW, DPIIT, MoRD, Defence. Emphasis on digital platforms, decentralised participation, outcome-based skilling. Youth Engagement, Leadership & Civic Participation Mera Yuva Bharat (MY Bharat) Autonomous body under MYAS; launched 31 Oct 2023. Technology-driven national youth platform. Core functions: Volunteering Experiential learning Leadership development Skill discovery Scale (as of 26 Nov 2025): 2.05 crore youth registered 14.5 lakh volunteering opportunities 16,000+ youth clubs 60,000+ institutional partners Governance logic: “Yuva Shakti se Jan Bhagidari” Youth as co-creators of development. MY Bharat Mobile App  Mobile-first governance. Features: Multilingual interface AI chatbots, voice navigation Smart CV Builder Digital certificates & badges At launch: 1.81 crore youth 1.20 lakh organisations onboarded. MY Bharat 2.0 MoU (30 June 2025): MYAS + Digital India Corporation. Objectives: Deeper digital engagement Career services, mentorship, Fit India integration. Strategic intent: Empower Amrit Peedhi Align youth governance with Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI). National Service & Social Capital National Service Scheme (NSS) Launched 1969. Coverage: 657 universities 20,669 colleges 11,988 schools Annual engagement: ~39 lakh volunteers Focus: Community service National integration Personality development. Key instruments: National Integration Camps Republic Day Parade Camp National Youth Festivals. Viksit Bharat Young Leaders’ Dialogue (VBYLD) Reimagined National Youth Festival. 2nd edition: 9–12 Jan 2026, Bharat Mandapam. Participation: ~3,000 youth 100 international delegates. Process innovation: Four-stage Challenge Track 50.42 lakh youth participated in digital quiz. Outcome: Youth policy ideas presented to national leadership. Youth & National Security Agnipath Scheme Launched 15 June 2022. Youth aged 17.5–21 recruited as Agniveers for 4 years. Outcomes: 46,000 trained in first batch (2023) ~1.5 lakh enrolled till Feb 2025 Governance logic: Youthful armed forces Skills + discipline + post-service employability. Education-to-Employment Pipeline PM-SETU Investment: ₹60,000 crore. Objective: Modernise 1,000 Government ITIs. Model: 200 hub ITIs + 800 spoke ITIs “Government-owned, industry-managed”. Linked initiatives: 1,200 vocational labs in JNVs & EMRS. Alignment: NEP 2020 Aspirational districts Tribal & remote inclusion. Skill India Ecosystem Skill India Mission (SIM) Launched 15 July 2015. Beneficiaries since 2014: 6+ crore. Restructured programme (2022–26): Outlay: ₹8,800 crore Merged PMKVY 4.0, NAPS, JSS. Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) Total enrolment (till 31 Oct 2025): 1.76 crore. Trained: 1.64 crore. Evolution: PMKVY 1.0 → PMKVY 4.0. Shift to On-the-Job Training (OJT). Inclusivity: 45% women Strong SC/ST/OBC participation. Future-ready skills: AI, drones, robotics, IoT. Jan Shikshan Sansthan (JSS) Non-formal, doorstep skilling. Beneficiaries (2018–2025): 32.5 lakh. 82% women beneficiaries. Focus: Non-literates School dropouts Marginalised communities. National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (NAPS) Since 2016: 49.12 lakh apprentices engaged. NAPS-2 (2025–26): Target: 13 lakh apprentices. Instrument for industry-integrated skilling. Rural Youth & Livelihoods DDU-GKY Rural youth placement-focused scheme. Placement rate: ~65%. Trained: 16.9 lakh Placed: 10.97 lakh. RSETIs Bank-led entrepreneurship model. Trained (till June 2025): 5.67 crore candidates. Emphasis: Credit linkage Self-employment. Entrepreneurship & Employment Pradhan Mantri Viksit Bharat Rozgar Yojana Announced 15 Aug 2025. Outlay: ₹1 lakh crore. Target: 3.5 crore jobs in 2 years. Dual incentive: Youth wage support Employer contribution subsidy. Startup India Launched 16 Jan 2016. Recognised startups (Oct 2025): 1.97 lakh. Key pillars: Ease of doing business Tax incentives Fund of Funds (₹10,000 crore). Structural shift: Rise of Tier-II & Tier-III startups. Startup India Seed Fund Scheme (SISFS) Early-stage risk capital. Approved: 219 incubators ₹945 crore. Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana 10 years completed (2025). Loans sanctioned: 53.85 crore ₹35.13 lakh crore. Focus: Women First-generation entrepreneurs. Health, Fitness & Well-being Fit India Movement Launched 29 Aug 2019. Behavioural change approach. Instruments: Fit India School Certification Sundays on Cycle Fitness Pledge Fit India App. Youth Spiritual Summit & Kashi Declaration Held July 2025, Varanasi. Theme: “Nasha Mukt Yuva for Viksit Bharat”. Kashi Declaration: 5-year roadmap Youth-led, stakeholder-defined roles. Integrates: Spiritual capital + public health governance. Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) Launched 2014. Target group: 10–19 years. Six domains: Nutrition Mental health SRH Substance misuse Violence & injuries NCDs. Shift from curative to preventive-adolescent-centric model. Takeaway National Youth Day 2026 underscores India’s shift from welfare-centric youth policy to a participation-driven, skill-linked, and purpose-oriented youth governance model aligned with Viksit Bharat @2047.

Content Delimitation, Finance Commission & Southern States Quad in 2025: A Year of Interregnum  Delimitation, Finance Commission & Southern States Why in News? Renewed debate on post-2026 delimitation of Lok Sabha seats ahead of the 2029 General Elections. Finance Commission allocations to southern States declining as population carries ~50% weight in tax devolution. Concern that States which successfully reduced fertility will face loss of political and fiscal power. Delimitation Commission (DC) likely to be constituted after Census 2026 (expected results by Oct 2028). Relevance GS II – Polity & Governance Delimitation Commission: constitutional mandate, democratic representation. Federalism: Centre–State balance, political equity. Constitutional amendments: 42nd, 84th, 87th CAA. Role of constitutional bodies: Finance Commission vs Delimitation Commission. GS III – Economy Fiscal federalism and horizontal imbalances. Demographic transition and economic performance. Incentive structures in public policy. Practice Question “Post-2026 delimitation risks undermining the principle of cooperative federalism.” Examine in the context of demographic transition across Indian States.(250 Words) Core Issue Policy paradox: States investing in health, education, and family planning face: Reduced Union tax share. Potential relative loss of Lok Sabha seats. Population growth since 1991 concentrated in: Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh. Southern States (TN, Kerala, Karnataka, AP, Telangana): Near-replacement or below-replacement TFR. Slower population growth → representation penalty. Constitutional & Legal Background 84th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2001: Froze Lok Sabha seat allocation till Census after 2026. Explicit intent: incentivise population stabilisation. Census delay: 2021 Census postponed. Results now expected 2028, enabling DC before 2029. Implication: Seat proportions may change, widening absolute seat gap between North & South. Fiscal Federalism Link Finance Commission criteria (15th FC indicative): Income distance: ~50%. Population (2011): significant weight. Demographic performance. Tax effort. Southern States’ grievance: High contribution to GDP & taxes, declining relative transfers. Key contradiction: FC rewards population control. DC likely to penalise population control. Political Impact of Delimitation Even if seat proportion freezes, absolute numbers matter: Northern States gain more MPs. Southern States’ agenda-setting power weakens. Risk of permanent political dominance by high-population States. Proposed Solutions Increase Lok Sabha Seats (Status Quo Ratios) Basis: 2011 Census. Lok Sabha size: ~866 seats. Pros: No State loses seats. Least disruptive. Cons: Still rewards high population growth. Equal Representation in Rajya Sabha Fixed seats per State (e.g., 10 each). RS strength: ~290. Federal logic (US Senate model). Politically unlikely due to Lok Sabha dominance focus. Expand Vidhan Sabhas Equalise MLAs per 1,000 population. Improves State-level representation. Does not address Lok Sabha power imbalance. Digressive Proportionality (Most Viable) Lok Sabha seats: 60% population-based 40% demographic performance-based Rewards States with: Lower fertility. Better human development. Mirrors: EU Parliament’s digressive proportionality. Aligns with Finance Commission logic. Comparative & Conceptual Anchor Digressive Proportionality: Larger States: more seats, fewer per capita. Smaller States: fewer seats, higher vote weight. Balances: One person, one vote vs federal equality. Strategic Imperative for Southern States Build early political consensus before DC constitution. Demand: Explicit inclusion of demographic performance in delimitation. Frame issue as: Rewarding responsible governance, not regional favouritism. Takeaway Post-2026 delimitation risks penalising States that achieved demographic transition; adopting digressive proportionality offers a constitutionally consistent and federal solution to balance representation with responsibility. Delimitation – Static Notes   What is Delimitation? Delimitation: Redrawing boundaries of Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly constituencies to reflect population changes. Objective: Equal representation → “one person, one vote, one value”. Constitutional Provisions Article 82: Parliament enacts a Delimitation Act after every Census. Article 170: Delimitation of State Legislative Assembly constituencies. Article 327: Parliament’s power over elections. Article 329: Bars judicial interference in delimitation orders. Delimitation Commission (DC) Nature: Independent, high-powered statutory body. Constitution: Chairperson: Retired Supreme Court judge. Members: Chief Election Commissioner / Election Commissioner. State Election Commissioners. Key Feature: DC orders have the force of law. Not challengeable in court. Historical Timeline Delimitation Commissions constituted in: 1952 1963 1973 2002 Last major delimitation: Based on 2001 Census (implemented in 2008). Freezing of Seats  42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 Froze Lok Sabha and Assembly seats based on 1971 Census. Period: 1976–2000. Rationale: Encourage population control. 84th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2001 Extended freeze till Census after 2026. Allowed: Readjustment of constituency boundaries, not seat numbers. Explicit intent: Reward States with successful family planning. 87th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003 Permitted delimitation using 2001 Census data. Did not alter total number of seats. Quad in 2025: A Year of Interregnum  Why in News? 2025 marked the first year since 2021 without a Quad leader-level summit, despite escalating Indo-Pacific tensions. Return of Donald Trump as U.S. President triggered uncertainty over U.S. multilateral commitments. India was scheduled to host the 2025 summit, but it did not materialise, raising questions about the Quad’s momentum. Despite this, Quad initiatives continued, signalling resilience rather than decline. Relevance GS II – International Relations Indo-Pacific strategy. Minilateralism vs multilateralism. India–US–Japan–Australia strategic convergence. Rules-based international order. GS III – Security Maritime security. Naval interoperability. Maritime domain awareness. Practice Question The absence of a Quad leaders’ summit in 2025 does not imply strategic irrelevance. Critically analyse. (15 marks) Strategic Context Indo-Pacific remains the most contested geopolitical theatre. Intensifying U.S.–China strategic competition. Quad positioned as a key instrument to: Uphold a rules-based order. Promote a Free, Open, and Inclusive Indo-Pacific (FOIP). Core members: India, U.S., Japan, Australia — all maritime democracies. Quad’s Evolution Formed: 2004 (Indian Ocean tsunami coordination). Dormancy: Post-2008 due to strategic hesitations. Revived: 2017, amid China’s growing regional assertiveness. Leader-level summits: 6 summits held (2021–2024). Latest: 2024, Wilmington (U.S.) — President Biden’s farewell summit. Trump Factor in 2025 Trump was a key architect of the 2017 revival of the Quad. Initial concerns: “America First” doctrine. Skepticism toward multilateral groupings. Reassurance signals: U.S. Secretary of State Marco Rubio hosted Quad Foreign Ministers: January 2025 July 2025 Quad featured as first major diplomatic engagement of Rubio. Why 2025 Is Called an “Interregnum” ? No leader-level summit for over a year. Political transitions: U.S.: Biden → Trump. Japan: New PM Sanae Takaichi (Oct 2025), yet to attend Quad summit. Quad lacks: Treaty status. Secretariat. Hence, leader-level summits are critical for strategic coherence. Continuity Through Operational Initiatives Quad-at-Sea: Ship Observer Mission Operationalised: June 2025 Enhances: Coast Guard cooperation. Maritime domain awareness. Ports of the Future Partnership First meet: October 2025, Mumbai Focus: Sustainable and resilient port infrastructure. Indo-Pacific connectivity. Malabar Naval Exercise Held in Guam (2025). Though not formally a Quad initiative: Involves all four Quad navies. Enhances interoperability and maritime signalling. Assessment of Quad’s Resilience No summit ≠ strategic drift. Continued programme delivery shows: Institutional learning. Operational depth beyond symbolism. Quad functioned as a “minilateral without paralysis”. Why Leader-Level Summit Matters ? Historically, major initiatives announced at: Vaccine partnership. Critical technologies. Maritime security. Diplomatic push underway: U.S. Ambassador to India Sergio Gor (Oct 2025): Confirmed efforts for early 2026 summit. Strategic Implications Quad remains: Central to U.S. Indo-Pacific strategy. Crucial balancing mechanism against unilateralism. 2025 tested Quad’s institutional elasticity. Outcome: Pause, not decay. Takeaway Despite leadership transitions and the absence of a summit, 2025 demonstrated the Quad’s operational resilience, underscoring its enduring relevance in sustaining a rules-based Indo-Pacific order. Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) – Notes What is QUAD? Informal strategic forum of four democracies: India, United States, Japan, Australia Objective: Promote a Free, Open, Inclusive, and Rules-Based Indo-Pacific. Nature: Minilateral, non-treaty, non-institutional grouping. No secretariat, charter, or mutual defence obligation. Origin & Evolution 2004: Emerged from coordination during the Indian Ocean Tsunami relief. 2007: First Quad meeting (Abe Shinzo’s “Confluence of the Two Seas” vision). 2008–2016: Dormancy due to strategic hesitations (esp. Australia). 2017 Revival: Restarted amid China’s assertiveness in the Indo-Pacific. Core Strategic Objectives Uphold international law, especially UNCLOS. Counter: Coercive actions. Unilateral status-quo changes. Ensure: Maritime security. Freedom of navigation. Provide public goods in the Indo-Pacific.

Content Centre Seeking Smartphone Source Code Should the Age of Consent Be Lowered? Bhairav Battalions PSLV-C62 / EOS-N1 Mission HPV Vaccine and Herd Protection Zehanpora Stupas, Kashmir Centre Seeking Smartphone Source Code  Why in News? Government is considering legally mandating security requirements for smartphones sold in India. Draft framework: Indian Telecom Security Assurance Requirements (ITSAR), 2023. Most contentious proposal: Access to smartphone source code for vulnerability analysis. Strong behind-the-scenes resistance from global manufacturers like Apple and Samsung. Ongoing consultations between IT Ministry and tech companies. Relevance GS II – Governance & Polity State regulation vs individual privacy. Role of executive rule-making. Digital sovereignty. GS III – Internal Security & Science & Tech Cybersecurity. Supply-chain security. Technology regulation. Basics: What is Source Code? Source code: Human-readable programming instructions that define how software functions. Considered: Core intellectual property (IP). Central to: Security architecture. Commercial competitiveness. Access risks: IP leakage. Reverse engineering. Loss of proprietary advantage. What Are the Proposed Security Measures? Under ITSAR (Drafted 2023): 1. Source Code Access Smartphone makers must: Share source code (or parts) with designated Indian testing labs. Purpose: Vulnerability analysis Detection of hidden backdoors or security flaws. 2. Mandatory Malware Scanning Automatic and periodic malware scans on devices. Applies even after sale to consumers. 3. Data & Activity Logs Smartphones must: Store device activity records for at least one year. Raises concerns on: User privacy. Surveillance architecture. Government’s Rationale Smartphones now: Handle critical personal, financial, and strategic data. Rising concerns: Cyber espionage. Supply-chain vulnerabilities. Embedded malware or backdoors. India’s position: Large digital population. Increasing reliance on foreign hardware/software. Seen as: National security and cyber sovereignty measure. Industry Concerns IP Protection: Source code disclosure risks trade secrets. Global Precedent: Fear India becoming a high-compliance market. Trust Deficit: Storage and handling of code by government labs. Privacy Risks: Mandatory logging could violate: Data minimisation principles. User consent norms. Legal & Policy Dimensions Cybersecurity Aligns with: National Cyber Security Strategy (proposed). Moves India towards: Pre-market security certification for devices. Data Protection Potential conflict with: Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: Purpose limitation. Storage limitation. Malware scanning and logging raise: State vs individual privacy tension. Trade & WTO Issues Possible violation of: TRIPS Agreement (IP protection). Non-tariff trade barriers. Risk of: Retaliatory measures. Global Comparison China: Extensive source-code audits for foreign tech. EU / US: Prefer: Security certification. Independent third-party audits. Do not routinely demand source code access. India’s approach: More state-centric and interventionist. Strategic Implications Positives: Enhanced device-level cybersecurity. Reduced dependence on opaque foreign systems. Risks: Reduced investor confidence. Higher device costs. Slower tech diffusion. Key question: Can security be ensured without intrusive code access? Takeaway India’s proposal to seek smartphone source code reflects a shift towards assertive digital sovereignty, raising complex trade-offs between cybersecurity, privacy, and intellectual property rights. Should the Age of Consent Be Lowered?  Why in News? Supreme Court (Jan 10, 2026) in State of Uttar Pradesh vs Anurudh & Anr.: Acknowledged misuse of POCSO, 2012 in consensual adolescent relationships. Urged the Union government to consider corrective measures. Rising number of POCSO cases involving 16–18-year-olds where the relationship is claimed to be consensual. Renewed debate on the conflict between adolescent autonomy and child protection. Relevance GS II – Polity & Governance Child rights vs individual liberty. Judicial interpretation of social legislation. Role of Parliament vs judiciary. GS I – Society Adolescence, sexuality, social norms. Gender and family dynamics. Basics: What Is the Age of Consent? Age of consent: Legally defined age at which a person can consent to sexual activity. In India: 18 years (gender-neutral). Anyone below 18 is a “child” → consent is legally irrelevant. Sexual activity with a minor = statutory rape, irrespective of consent. Legal Framework in India POCSO Act, 2012 Defines all persons under 18 years as children. Section 19: Mandatory reporting of suspected offences. No distinction between: Consensual adolescent relationships. Exploitative sexual abuse. IPC / Criminal Law Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013: Raised age of consent from 16 → 18. Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023: Section 63: Sexual acts with a woman under 18 constitute rape, with or without consent. Distinction to Note Age of consent ≠ Age of marriage: Marriage: 18 (female), 21 (male). Consent law deals with sexual autonomy, not marital validity. Historical Evolution of Age of Consent 1860 IPC: 10 years 1891: 12 years Later raised to 14, then 16 2012 (POCSO): Raised to 18 Trend reflects: Increasing emphasis on child protection, not autonomy. Arguments in Favour of Lowering the Age (to 16) 1. Criminalisation of Consensual Adolescence Large share of POCSO cases involve romantic relationships. Enfold study (2016–2020): 7,064 POCSO judgments analysed. 24.3% involved romantic relationships. 82% victims refused to testify against the accused. 2. Ground Reality of Adolescent Sexuality NFHS-4 (2015–16): 11% girls had first sexual experience before 15. 39% before 18. Law ignores biological and social realities. 3. Judicial Concerns Bombay HC (2023): Sexual autonomy includes both: Right to engage. Right to protection. Justice B.V. Nagarathna (SC, 2025): Romantic relationships near majority age should be treated differently. POCSO often used by parents to criminalise elopement. 4. Comparative Practice Many democracies (UK, Canada, EU): Age of consent: 16. Use “close-in-age” (Romeo–Juliet) exemptions. Arguments Against Lowering the Age 1. Risk of Weakening Child Protection Majority of abuse cases involve: Known persons (family, neighbours, caregivers). MWCD Study (2007): Over 50% of abusers known to the child. Consent in such power-imbalanced relationships is often illusory. 2. Deterrence Against Exploitation Bright-line rule (under 18 = no consent): Avoids subjective interpretation. Simplifies enforcement. Dilution may: Enable trafficking. Mask coercion as “consent”. 3. Parliamentary & Expert Consensus Justice Verma Committee: Recommended 16, but Parliament chose 18. Standing Committees (2011, 2012): Rejected recognising minor consent. Law Commission (283rd Report, 2023): Lowering age would make POCSO a “paper law”. Judicial Tightrope Courts acknowledge: Harsh impact of blanket criminalisation. Yet repeatedly affirm: Consent is legally immaterial under POCSO. Example: SC (Aug 2024): Overturned Calcutta HC acquittal in a POCSO case involving a 14-year-old. Conviction upheld; sentence waived under Article 142 (not precedent). The Core Policy Dilemma Adolescent autonomy vs Child protection. Binary choice (18 vs 16) is inadequate. Real issue: Distinguishing consensual peer relationships from exploitative abuse. Middle-Path Solutions No blanket reduction of age of consent. Introduce: Close-in-age exemption for 16–18-year-olds (e.g., ≤3–4 years gap). Mandatory judicial scrutiny for coercion or abuse. Complement legal reform with: Comprehensive sex education. Adolescent-friendly reproductive health services. Gender-sensitive policing and counselling. Takeaway The age-of-consent debate is not about lowering protection, but about recalibrating the law to distinguish adolescent autonomy from exploitation without diluting the core safeguards of child protection. Bhairav Battalions  Why in News? Bhairav Battalions will debut in the Army Day Parade (15 January, Jaipur). Two units participating: 2 Bhairav Battalion (Southern Command) – “Desert Falcons”. 4 Bhairav Battalion (South Western Command). Marks India Army’s visible shift towards modern, technology-driven warfare. Relevance GS III – Internal Security Modernisation of armed forces. Emerging warfare domains (drones, hybrid warfare). Basics: What are Bhairav Battalions? Newly raised, high-speed offensive units of the Indian Army. Designed to: Execute Special Forces–like tasks. Operate from tactical to operational depth. Intended to bridge the gap between: Para Special Forces (elite, limited numbers). Regular infantry (large but less specialised). Why Were Bhairav Battalions Raised? Changing Nature of Warfare Modern conflicts are: Hybrid (conventional + irregular + cyber + drones). Technology-intensive. Lessons drawn from: Global conflicts (Ukraine, West Asia). India’s operational experience, including Operation Sindoor. Operational Gaps Identified Need for: Faster, more lethal units than regular infantry. Wider availability of special-operations capability without overstretching Para SF. Key Features of Bhairav Battalions High-speed offensive orientation. Capable of: Precision strikes. Deep penetration missions. Disruption of enemy bases and formations. Flexible employment: Tactical raids. Operational-level missions. Technology & Drone Warfare Focus Integral to Army’s unmanned warfare push. Indian Army creating: Pool of over 1 lakh drone operatives. Bhairav units trained to: Operate UAVs. Conduct drone-based reconnaissance, targeting, and strikes. Reflects shift from: Man-centric → man–machine teaming. Force Restructuring Context Bhairav Battalions 15 battalions raised so far. Target: ~25 battalions in near future. Deployed across border formations. Rudra Brigades (Parallel Reform) Integrated all-arms formations. Combine: Infantry. Mechanised units. Tanks. Artillery. Special Forces. Unmanned systems. Dedicated logistics and combat support. Aim: Faster mobilisation. Higher lethality. Integrated battlefield response. Place in India’s Military Doctrine Aligns with: Theatre-level readiness. Integrated Battle Groups (IBGs) concept. Enhances: Offensive deterrence. Rapid response along borders. Reduces dependence on: Limited Para SF units for routine special operations. Strategic Significance Signals: Transition to next-generation land warfare. Improves India’s: Offensive capability without escalation dominance. Ability to respond swiftly in grey-zone conflicts. Supports: Credible deterrence against both western and northern adversaries. Challenges & Cautions High training and technology costs. Command and control integration with: Infantry. Special Forces. Air and drone assets. Avoiding dilution of Para SF’s elite role. Takeaway Bhairav Battalions represent the Indian Army’s shift towards agile, technology-enabled offensive forces, bridging the gap between conventional infantry and Special Forces in an era of hybrid warfare. PSLV-C62 / EOS-N1 Mission   Why in News? ISRO commenced the 22.5-hour countdown for PSLV-C62 / EOS-N1 mission. Launch scheduled at 10:17 a.m. from Sriharikota. Mission highlights: Strategic Earth Observation satellite (EOS-N1). 15 co-passenger satellites from Indian start-ups, academia, and foreign partners. Commercial launch by NewSpace India Limited (NSIL). PSLV-DL variant with PS4 stage restart and controlled re-entry. Relevance GS III – Science & Technology Space technology. Launch vehicles. Earth observation satellites. GS III – Security Strategic surveillance. Dual-use space assets. Basics: What is PSLV? Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV): ISRO’s workhorse launch vehicle. Optimised for Sun-Synchronous Orbits (SSO) and LEO. Known for: High reliability. Multi-satellite launch capability. PSLV Variants PSLV-CA: Core Alone. PSLV-DL: Dual strap-on motors. PSLV-QL: Four strap-ons. PSLV-XL: Six strap-ons (heavy-lift PSLV). Mission Profile: PSLV-C62 64th PSLV flight. 5th PSLV-DL mission. 105th launch from Sriharikota. Launch pad: First Launch Pad. Orbit: Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO). Primary Payload: EOS-N1 Earth Observation Satellite. Purpose: Strategic surveillance and imaging. Users: National security. Strategic planning. Reinforces: India’s space-based intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) capability. Co-Passenger Satellites: Key Features 15 small satellites. Developed by: Indian start-ups (Dhruva Space, TakeMe2Space, OrbitAid). Academic institutions. Foreign partners (Thailand-UK, Brazil, Nepal, Spain-France). Examples: Theos-2 (Thailand-UK EO satellite). CGUSAT, DSUSAT, MOI-1, LACHIT (Indian start-ups). Munal (Nepal–India collaboration). KID Capsule (Spain–France re-entry experiment). What is Special About This Mission? 1. Commercialisation via NSIL Mission operated by NewSpace India Limited. Reflects: Shift from ISRO as operator → ISRO as enabler. Supports: India’s space economy expansion. 2. Start-up & Academic Participation Strong representation of: Indian private space ecosystem. Encourages: Innovation. Indigenous space manufacturing. 3. PS4 Stage Restart & Re-entry PS4 stage restarted post satellite deployment. Purpose: Controlled de-orbiting. Space debris mitigation. Both PS4 stage and KID Capsule: Re-enter Earth’s atmosphere. Impact zone: South Pacific Ocean. What is Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO)? Near-polar orbit. Satellite passes over same location at same local solar time. Ideal for: Earth observation. Remote sensing. Environmental monitoring. Strategic & Policy Significance Enhances: National security surveillance. Space situational responsibility (debris mitigation). Aligns with: Indian Space Policy 2023. IN-SPACe–driven private participation. Strengthens India’s: Position as reliable global launch service provider. Takeaway PSLV-C62 reflects India’s mature space capabilities, combining strategic surveillance, commercial launches, start-up participation, and responsible space operations in a single mission. HPV Vaccine & Herd Protection  Why in News? A large Swedish population-based study shows school-based HPV vaccination provides herd protection, reducing cervical cancer even among unvaccinated women. Evidence strengthens the case for including HPV vaccine in India’s Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP). Relevant as India is planning school-based HPV vaccination (ages 9–14). Relevance GS II – Governance & Social Justice Public health policy. Universal Immunisation Programme. Women’s health. GS III – Science & Technology / Health Preventive healthcare. Vaccine science. Disease elimination strategies. Basics: What is HPV? Human Papillomavirus (HPV): Sexually transmitted virus. >200 types identified. High-risk strains (notably HPV-16, HPV-18) cause: ~95% of cervical cancer. Also linked to: Anal, oropharyngeal, penile cancers. Genital warts (low-risk strains). Cervical Cancer: India Burden 2nd most common cancer among Indian women. Annual impact: ~1.25 lakh new cases ~75,000 deaths Disproportionately affects: Low-income, low-screening populations. What is Herd Protection? When high vaccination coverage reduces overall virus circulation. Protects: Unvaccinated individuals. Especially relevant for sexually transmitted infections when transmission chains are disrupted. Key Findings of the Swedish Study Cohort: Women born 1989–2000. Vaccination coverage: Rose from 25% → 80% via school-based programmes. Results: Significant reduction in precancerous cervical lesions. Even unvaccinated women benefited if community coverage was high. Critical thresholds: ≥70% coverage → visible herd effects. ~90% coverage → optimal protection. Why School-Based Vaccination Works ? Early age (9–14): Vaccination before sexual debut → maximum efficacy. School-based delivery: Higher coverage. Lower dropout. Equity across socio-economic groups. Cost-effective at population scale. HPV Vaccine: Scientific & Medical Aspects Type: Preventive, not therapeutic. Effectiveness: Nearly 100% protection against HPV-16/18-related precancerous lesions. Limitation: Does not eliminate need for screening (Pap smear / HPV DNA test). No proven herd immunity evidence yet in India, but established in: Sweden UK Australia. India’s Current Position Indigenous vaccine: CERVAVAC developed by Serum Institute of India. Policy direction: Govt considering routine immunisation inclusion. Proposed age group: 9–14 years. Challenges: Awareness gaps. Vaccine hesitancy. Need for adolescent health infrastructure. Public Health Significance Shifts cervical cancer control from: Late-stage treatment → Primary prevention. Reduces: Screening burden. Long-term oncology costs. Aligns with: WHO Cervical Cancer Elimination Strategy: 90% vaccination 70% screening 90% treatment. Ethical & Social Dimensions Gender equity: Protects women disproportionately affected. Intergenerational benefit: Herd protection amplifies social returns. Justice argument: Preventable cancer → moral obligation of the State. Takeaway High-coverage, school-based HPV vaccination can generate herd protection, making cervical cancer a largely preventable disease and strengthening the case for its inclusion in India’s universal immunisation strategy. Zehanpora Stupas, Kashmir  Why in News? Archaeological discovery of ancient Buddhist stupas at Zehanpora, Baramulla (J&K). Site mentioned by Prime Minister in Mann Ki Baat. Excavations suggest structures dating back to the Kushan period (≈2,000+ years old). Reinforces Kashmir’s overlooked Buddhist heritage. Relevance GS I – Art & Culture / History Buddhism in India. Kushan period. Stupa architecture. GS I – Indian Society Cultural pluralism. Historical continuity in Kashmir. Basics: What are Stupas? Stupa: Buddhist commemorative structure. Houses relics of the Buddha or monks. Core elements: Anda (hemispherical mound) Harmika Chhatra Functions: Religious worship. Symbol of Buddha’s enlightenment and Mahaparinirvana. Location & Site Details Zehanpora village, near Baramulla town, north Kashmir. Spread across 10+ acres. Landscape: Plateau-like mound. Reduced over centuries due to: Floods. Canal digging (1970s). Long mistaken as natural earth mounds. Archaeological Findings Multiple earthen mounds forming a stupa complex. Evidence suggests: Wooden superstructure over stone base. Site used as winter halt for monks. Methods used: Modern archaeological tools. Drones and remote sensing. Dating & Historical Context Estimated age: ~2,000 years. Period: Kushan Empire (1st–3rd century CE). Kushans known for: Patronage of Buddhism. Trade along Silk Route. Gandhara art tradition. Buddhism in Kashmir: Historical Background Introduced during: Mauryan period (Ashoka) — traditional belief. Major expansion under: Kanishka (Kushan ruler). Kashmir’s role: Scholarly centre of Buddhism. Transmission point to Central Asia and China. Buddhist councils: 4th Buddhist Council traditionally associated with Kashmir (per some sources). Why Zehanpora is Significant ? Adds to known Buddhist sites: Harwan Kanispora Ushkur Hutmur Semthan Confirms: Dense Buddhist settlement in north Kashmir. Shows: Kashmir as a monastic and trade hub, not peripheral region. Global Link: France Connection Photograph of Zehanpora site found in French museum archives. Indicates: Colonial-era documentation. Early European scholarly interest. Reflects: Global dispersal of Indian archaeological records. Cultural & Civilisational Significance Challenges narrative of Kashmir as only: Shaivite or Islamic heritage region. Highlights: Pluralistic religious history. Cultural continuity across centuries. Strengthens: Buddhist civilisational map of India. Governance & Heritage Implications Need for: Site protection. Scientific excavation. Heritage tourism integration. Aligns with: Cultural revival initiatives. Soft power diplomacy via Buddhism. Takeaway The Zehanpora stupa complex reaffirms Kashmir’s role as a major Buddhist centre during the Kushan period, highlighting the region’s deep civilisational pluralism and strategic position in ancient trans-Asian networks.