Content 2025 Economic Reforms PathGennie – “Fast-Tracks” drug discovery 2025 Economic Reforms Why in News ? The Government rolled out a consolidated package of economic reforms in 2025 focused on: outcome-driven governance simplification of systems inclusive and employment-centric growth Reforms spanned taxation, GST, labour, MSMEs, exports, rural employment and ease-of-doing-business. Relevance GS-III | Economy, Growth & Inclusive Development Growth-oriented reforms — tax rationalisation, GST 2.0, MSME expansion, export promotion Formalisation + productivity gains via labour codes & digital compliance Rural livelihoods + asset-creation through VB-GRAM (125-day guarantee) Fiscal stability — wider tax base, predictable revenues, ease of doing business MSME-led employment, startup competitiveness, credit enablement Big Picture — Reform Philosophy   Shift from rule-heavy regulation → outcome-based governance. Emphasis on: simplification, predictability, digitalisation, compliance reduction trust-based administration and fiscal stability enabling youth, women, MSMEs, gig workers, rural households Key Reform Pillars — Facts & Data 1) Direct Tax & New Income Tax Act, 2025 Income up to ₹12 lakh exempt in new regime Effective exemption ₹12.75 lakh for salaried (incl. standard deduction). Comprehensive rewrite of 1961 Act with: textual simplification, removal of obsolete clauses continuity in tax policy & rates Unified “Tax Year” replaces AY/PY — reduces ambiguity. Digital-first enforcement, faceless administration, unified TDS framework. Likely Outcomes Higher disposable income → consumption multiplier Reduced litigation, clarity for taxpayers Improved compliance through digital systems 2) Labour Reforms — Four Labour Codes 29 laws consolidated into 4 Codes (Wages, IR, Social Security, OSH & Working Conditions) Coverage extended to: gig & platform workers (~1 crore+ beneficiaries) women workers — improved leave, maternity & safety Uniform wage definition, simplification of dispute settlement. Structural Impact Single framework for 50+ crore workers Moves labour regulation towards flexibility + protection Supports formalisation & workforce security 3) Rural Employment Reforms — VB-GRAM Act, 2025 Replaces MGNREGA with integrated livelihood framework. Guarantee: 125 days paid work/household/year Timely wage payment: weekly / ≤15 days Asset creation focus — water, climate-resilient works, rural infra, livelihoods Decentralised planning via VGPPs + digital convergence (PM Gati Shakti) Admin expenditure ceiling raised to 9% to strengthen delivery. Development Logic Aligns rural employment with productive capital formation Balances farm labour availability + worker security Enhances local planning capacity 4) Ease of Doing Business & MSME Support MSME-friendly QCO roll-out (phased, exemptions, legacy stock clearance). Credit & liquidity measures: MCGS cover up to ₹100 crore collateral-free loans up to ₹10 lakh working capital: ≥20% of projected turnover (≤₹5 crore limits) MSME definition revised: Micro: ₹2.5 cr / ₹10 cr Small: ₹25 cr / ₹100 cr Medium: ₹125 cr / ₹500 cr Credit-guarantee limit doubled ₹5 cr → ₹10 cr Expected Gains Scale expansion, formal credit penetration Export & startup competitiveness Employment generation in manufacturing & services 5) GST 2.0 — Next-Generation GST Two-slab regime: 5% & 18% Rate rationalisation lowers cost of essentials & services. Faster refunds, simpler registration, MSME-friendly compliance. Taxpayer base expanded to 1.5 crore+ Gross GST collections FY 2024-25: ₹22.08 lakh crore Macroeconomic Effects Reduced classification disputes & compliance burden Boost to consumption and business confidence Improved revenue predictability + fiscal stability 6) Export Promotion Mission (EPM) — ₹25,060 crore (2025-31) Unified architecture replacing fragmented schemes. Two pillars: Niryat Protsahan — finance, credit enhancement Niryat Disha — compliance, branding, logistics, market access Focus on: MSMEs, first-time exporters, non-traditional districts jobs in manufacturing & logistics Strategic Objective Build district-export ecosystems Position India for competitive, inclusive export growth toward 2047 7) Other Trade & Process Reforms Digital trade stack — National Single Window, ICEGATE, Trade Connect D-BRAP 2025 — decentralised approvals & inspections GeM & MSME-SAMBANDH — deeper MSME procurement linkages ₹58,000 crore disbursed under RoDTEP (till March 2025) Strengths & Risks Strengths Coherent reform sequencing (tax → labour → MSME → exports) Administrative simplification → lower transaction costs Inclusion of gig workers, women, rural households Outcome-orientation → assets, productivity, formalisation Risks Labour code rollout dependent on state rules & capacity GST two-rate system still needs fitment clarity in edge sectors Rural employment redesign must avoid under-funding or delays MSME expansion needs market access + productivity upgrading, not just credit Takeaways  Income-tax exemption (new regime): up to ₹12 lakh (₹12.75 lakh salaried) GST taxpayer base: 1.5 crore+ | FY25 GST: ₹22.08 lakh crore Rural guarantee: 125 days work | admin cap 6% → 9% Labour coverage: 50+ crore workers | gig workers ~1 crore+ EPM outlay: ₹25,060 crore (2025-31) MSME thresholds: Micro ₹2.5cr/₹10cr | Small ₹25cr/₹100cr | Medium ₹125cr/₹500cr PathGennie – “Fast-Tracks” drug discovery Why in News ? Scientists at S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Kolkata (DST institute) developed PathGennie, a novel open-source computational framework. It accelerates simulation of rare molecular events and enables accurate prediction of drug–protein unbinding pathways without distorting physics. Published in Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation—relevant to drug discovery, molecular simulations, AI-integrated chemistry and biotech innovation. Relevance GS-III | Science & Technology, Biotechnology & Innovation Frontier research in computational chemistry & molecular simulation Strengthens Computer-Aided Drug Discovery (CADD) capabilities Direction-Guided Adaptive Sampling — rare-event modelling breakthrough Reduces cost, time, distortion in drug–protein unbinding predictions GS-III | Health, Pharma R&D & Indigenous Tech Capacity Improves drug design pipelines, residence-time analysis, resistance-pathway mapping Supports domestic pharma innovation, precision therapeutics, R&D localisation Aligns with Make in India (Pharma) & Deep-Tech missions Scientific Context — The Problem In drug discovery, residence time (how long a drug stays bound) is often more important than binding affinity. Unbinding events are rare — occur over milliseconds to seconds. Classical Molecular Dynamics (MD) cannot simulate these time-scales even on supercomputers. Existing methods force events using: bias forces high temperature artificial steering These distort true kinetic pathways → unreliable predictions. What PathGennie Does ? — Core Idea Introduces Direction-Guided Adaptive Sampling. Mimics natural selection at the molecular scale. Uses many ultrashort unbiased MD trajectories (few femtoseconds). Only those trajectories showing progress toward the target state are extended. Non-productive trajectories are discarded → “survival-of-the-fittest” simulations. Result Captures true, undistorted transition pathways Achieves faster discovery of rare molecular events without biasing forces. How It Works ? — Mechanism (Step-wise) Launch multiple micro-trajectories in molecular configuration space. Evaluate movement in chosen Collective Variables (CVs) — descriptors of progress. Exploration + Exploitation balance: extend promising paths prune unproductive ones Iteratively reconstruct complete transition pathways across high-energy barriers. Works even in high-dimensional / machine-learned CV spaces. Evidence & Demonstrations (Proof-of-Concept) Team: Prof. Suman Chakrabarty, Dibyendu Maity, Shaheerah Shahid Validated on benchmark systems: Benzene–T4 lysozyme → mapped multiple ligand exit routes Imatinib (Gleevec)–Abl kinase → detected three dissociation pathways Recovered experimentally-known mechanisms → confirms accuracy without biasing forces. Why It Matters ?— Impact on Drug Discovery Enables accurate residence-time modelling Reduces: computational cost simulation time pathway distortion Strengthens Computer-Aided Drug Discovery (CADD) pipelines. Helps identify: drug escape routes off-pathway binding / resistance pathways molecule stability under physiological motion Broader Scientific Applications Rare-event simulations in: chemical reactions & catalysis phase transitions self-assembly processes biomolecular conformational changes Compatible with machine-learning–derived order parameters. Open-source → lowers adoption barrier for global research labs. Strategic & National Significance Strengthens India’s computational chemistry & pharma innovation ecosystem. Supports: AI-enabled science drug design localization cost-efficient R&D Aligns with: Make in India – Pharmaceuticals Deep-tech & research translation missions Facts & Data  Institution: S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Kolkata (DST) Tool: PathGennie — open-source computational framework Domain: Rare-event molecular simulations / CADD Key innovation: Direction-Guided Adaptive Sampling Output: Unbinding pathways without external bias Validated on: T4 lysozyme–benzene, Imatinib–Abl kinase

Content Track record In 100 years, quantum physics has touched every aspect of our lives Track record  Why in News ? A fire broke out in two air-conditioned (AC) coaches of the Tatanagar–Ernakulam Express near Yelamanchili, Andhra Pradesh. The toll remained low (one passenger) due to: early alarm by a passenger crew response & emergency chain use diversion to a loop line with platform timely assistance from agencies and existing safety systems. Incident highlights persistent fire-risk concerns in AC coaches and the need to upgrade detection, suppression, and evacuation protocols. Relevance   GS-III | Infrastructure, Disaster Management, Technology & Safety Public transport safety as a critical infrastructure and risk-mitigation challenge Shift from reactive accident response → preventive, risk-anticipatory governance Role of technology (detection, suppression, sensors, predictive monitoring) Fire accidents as 10–20% of total rail accidents despite ↓ 70% fall in overall accidents Need for design-level safety engineering & redundancy in AC coaches Practice Question “Despite significant improvement in overall railway safety indicators, fire accidents remain a persistent risk, especially in AC coaches.” Discuss the systemic vulnerabilities and suggest a technology- and governance-led strategy to build a risk-anticipatory safety culture in Indian Railways.(250 Words) Basic Context — Rail Safety Trend Overall safety performance has improved sharply over a decade. Accidents in 2024–25: down by >70% compared to 10 years ago. However: major accidents fluctuate year-to-year fire accidents form 10–20% of total accidents annually causes include rolling-stock defects, wiring faults, passenger-borne inflammables. Facts & Data — Fire Safety Measures Fire & Smoke Detection Systems installed in ~20,000 AC coaches (as per 2023–24 Annual Report). Target: coverage of all AC coaches including new stock. Fire extinguishers fitted in all AC and non-AC coaches. In this incident: alarm system activated coach mechanic, bed-roll staff, TTE alerted passengers portable extinguishers used, limiting spread before full dousing. Fire was contained in ~2 hours. Why AC Coaches Need Higher Safety Standards ? Closed, insulated compartments → smoke retention risk. Higher electrical load (HVAC, lighting, charging points). Flammable furnishings & luggage increase burn intensity. Night-time fires → reduced reaction time + evacuation difficulty. Risk Analysis — Likely Systemic Vulnerabilities Residual wiring / insulation faults in older stock Passenger carriage of inflammables Gaps in early-stage suppression capability Crew training variance across zones Evacuation & crowd-management constraints at night Policy & Technology Priorities — Way Forward Fixed / automatic fire-suppression systems in AC coaches capable of dousing electrical & thermal fires trigger-based activation to stop flashover spread. Full roll-out of detection systems to 100% AC fleet + periodic audits. Fire-safe coach design standards low-smoke / flame-retardant interiors protected wiring channels & redundancy. AI / sensor-based health monitoring predictive alerts on heating, cable load, bearing temperatures. Strict enforcement against inflammable luggage scanning in sensitive routes, awareness + penalties. Crew & passenger readiness standardised night-evacuation drills, signage, briefing protocols. Independent safety review mechanism post-incident learning loops across zones. In safety-critical public transport, “no feature is too expensive” compared to loss of life. Impact & Governance Perspective Reinforces shift from accident-reactive to risk-anticipatory safety culture. Aligns with: infrastructure resilience human-factor training technology-enabled safety modernisation. Essential for high-speed expansion, passenger trust, and service reliability. Takeaways Accidents ↓ >70% in 10 years (2024–25 vs baseline) Fire incidents = ~10–20% of accidents annually ~20,000 AC coaches fitted with fire/smoke detection (target = full coverage) Policy need: automatic suppression + stricter inflammable-luggage controls + design upgrades In 100 years, quantum physics has touched every aspect of our lives Why in News ? 2025 marks a century-long journey of modern quantum physics, tracing back to: Werner Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics (1925) followed by contributions from Schrödinger, Bohr, Born, Dirac, Pauli, and others The UN earlier declared 2025 the “Year of Quantum Science and Technology” to recognise: the transformation of science, technology, economy, and daily life through quantum principles. The article reflects on how quantum theory moved from abstraction to real-world innovation shaping: electronics, computing, communication, materials, medicine, national security, and emerging quantum industries. Relevance   GS-III | Science & Technology — Basics, Applications, Innovation Foundation of modern electronics, semiconductors, lasers, sensors, MRI, GPS, photonics Transition from abstract theory → technology backbone (first quantum revolution) Emerging frontier fields — quantum computing, communication, sensing, materials (second quantum revolution) Role of precision technologies, cybersecurity, AI acceleration, climate & material science Practice Question “Quantum physics has moved from abstract theory to the backbone of modern technology.” Explain with examples how quantum principles underpin everyday technologies, and assess the opportunities and challenges of the second quantum revolution.(250 Words ) What is Quantum Physics? Studies matter and energy at atomic & subatomic scales. Key principles: Wave–particle duality (particles exhibit wave-like behaviour) Quantisation of energy Uncertainty principle (limits to simultaneous measurement of position & momentum) Superposition & entanglement (multiple states; correlated particles) Counterintuitive nature is why Richard Feynman famously said: “No one understands quantum mechanics.” Historical Evolution — Facts & Timeline 1900 — Max Planck introduces quantised energy to explain black-body radiation. 1905 — Einstein explains photoelectric effect → photons. 1925 — Heisenberg develops matrix mechanics. 1926 — Schrödinger proposes wave mechanics. 1927 — Born’s probabilistic interpretation of wavefunction. 1927 — Copenhagen interpretation (Bohr–Heisenberg). 1930s–1950s — Dirac, Pauli, Fermi advance quantum field theory. Post-war era → quantum principles drive electronics revolution. Key shift: From abstract theory → technological foundation of the 20th & 21st centuries. Where Quantum Physics Shows Up in Daily Life? The “first quantum revolution” powered technologies based on semiconductors, photon behaviour, atomic physics: Transistors & microchips → modern computers & smartphones Lasers → telecom fibre optics, barcode scanners, surgery MRI & PET scans → quantum spin & nuclear magnetic resonance LEDs, solar cells, sensors, atomic clocks GPS timing & navigation Chemical & materials engineering Digital cameras & photodetectors Almost every modern device rests on quantum principles, even if invisible to users. Second Quantum Revolution — Emerging Frontier Technologies Modern research now exploits superposition & entanglement directly: Quantum computing solves optimisation, cryptography, molecular simulation problems Quantum communication & encryption ultra-secure networks (QKD) Quantum sensing & metrology ultra-precise measurement, navigation, climate & mineral mapping Quantum materials superconductors, graphene, topological insulators Global race underway — strategic, economic, and security implications. India’s Quantum Push — Facts & Policy Context National Quantum Mission (NQM), India (2023–2031) Outlay: ₹6,003 crore goals: quantum computing, secure communication, sensing, materials Establishment of Quantum Technology hubs in IITs, IISc & research centres DRDO–ISRO–MeitY projects in quantum communication pilots & satellites Start-up ecosystem in QKD, cryogenic hardware, photonics Why Quantum Matters ? — Strategic & Developmental Significance Economic value creation in: pharma, logistics, finance, climate modelling, AI acceleration National security post-quantum cryptography, secure warfare networks Scientific competitiveness leadership in emerging-tech value chains Sovereignty in high-tech ecosystems Challenges & Debates  Hardware scalability, decoherence, cryogenic constraints Talent, research-to-industry translation gaps Ethical & governance issues in crypto, defence, data security Risk of quantum divide between nations Quick Facts 1925 — Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics → foundation of modern quantum theory Technologies derived: semiconductors, lasers, MRI, GPS, solar cells, sensors Second quantum revolution → computing, cryptography, sensing, materials India NQM outlay: ₹6,003 crore (2023–31)

Content Law on Suspension of Sentence India as the Fourth-Largest Economy Ammonium Sulfate in Delhi’s PM2.5 Farmer Suicides in India PM-KUSUM 2.0 Law on Suspension of Sentence Why in news?  The Supreme Court (Dec 29, 2025) stayed the Delhi High Court order suspending the life sentence and granting bail to former MLA Kuldeep Singh Sengar in the 2017 Unnao rape case, pending appeal. Relevance : GS-II (Polity) Criminal justice & appellate powers under CrPC/BNSS; limits of judicial discretion. Balancing Article 21 (fair trial) with victim/witness protection, esp. in POCSO / heinous offences. Core Concept (Doctrinal Basics) Meaning “Suspension of sentence” pauses the execution of punishment after conviction during pendency of appeal. It does not set aside conviction; the finding of guilt remains operative. Statutory Basis Section 389, CrPC, 1973 → now Section 430, BNSS, 2023. Operates only post-conviction and is discretionary, not automatic. Distinct from Related Remedies Suspension of sentence → temporary halt of punishment. Stay of conviction → exceptional; affects disqualification consequences. Commutation / Remission / Pardon → executive powers, not appellate discretion. When is Suspension the Norm vs the Exception? Fixed-term sentences under appeal General rule → courts lean towards suspension to prevent appeal becoming infructuous Bhagwan Rama Shinde Gosai (1999). Heinous offences / Life imprisonment cases Not routine; treated as exceptional relief. Requires heightened scrutiny of facts, risk, and merits. Governing Tests Applied by Appellate Courts Key evaluation matrix distilled from Supreme Court jurisprudence: A. Nature & Gravity of Offence Seriousness, brutality, societal impact (Shivani Tyagi, 2024). B. Strength of Appeal / Chance of Acquittal Must show prima facie serious infirmity or palpable error in trial judgment likely to reverse outcome Chhotelal Yadav, 2025. C. Long Incarceration Alone — Not Sufficient Period already undergone cannot be the sole ground in life-sentence matters Shivani Tyagi, 2024. D. Risk of Threat / Witness Intimidation / Victim Safety Prior conduct, history of intimidation, power asymmetry, vulnerability. E. Likelihood of Delay in Appeal Hearing Relevant, but secondary in heinous crimes. F. Conduct of Accused Behaviour in custody, criminal antecedents, compliance with earlier bail. Operational rule emerging: Suspension in life-imprisonment cases is justified only when (i) appeal shows credible prospects of reversal, and (ii) release does not compromise public interest or victim/witness safety. Procedural Safeguards & Requirements Reasoned Orders are Mandatory Courts must show application of mind to gravity, evidence, risks. Victim / State must be heard in serious offences. Conditions may be imposed travel limits, sureties, periodic reporting, non-contact directions. Bail on suspension ≠ right — remains judicial discretion tied to case facts. Special Considerations in Life-Imprisonment & Sexual-Offence Cases Courts apply higher caution where offences involve minors, custodial or authority-based abuse, organised violence, or systemic intimidation. In POCSO-type contexts, courts recognise the victim-centric and protective purpose of the statute; suspension requires stricter scrutiny of safety and societal interest. Jamna Lal, 2025 — trial court findings on minority or core facts are not to be unsettled lightly at suspension stage. Suspension vs Human Rights & Article 21 Balance Rationale for the doctrine Prevents undue hardship if conviction is later reversed. Preserves the right to meaningful appeal. Counter-balancing considerations Public confidence in justice, deterrence in grave crimes, survivor rights, equality before law. Courts therefore calibrate between fairness to the convict and societal / victim-protection interests. Neutral Policy & Practice Issues (Current Debates) Consistency problem Divergent High Court thresholds in life-sentence suspension orders. Backlog-driven pressures Delayed hearings often cited — but SC insists delay cannot override gravity in heinous crimes. Need for structured guidelines A uniform check-list / risk-assessment framework could improve predictability and victim-safety evaluation. Witness-protection integration Suspension decisions in high-risk cases need robust monitoring conditions and accountability for enforcement. Key Takeaways Suspension of sentence = execution paused, conviction intact. Routine in short / fixed-term sentences; exceptional in life-sentence / heinous offences. Core determinants → gravity, merits of appeal, safety risk, conduct, delay (secondary). Long custody alone is insufficient; courts must see credible prospects of acquittal. Orders must be reasoned, cautious, and victim-sensitive, especially in POCSO / sexual-violence contexts. India as the Fourth-Largest Economy  Why in news? Govt. statement (2025 reform snapshot) says India’s GDP ≈ $4.18 trillion, surpassing Japan to become the world’s 4th-largest economy; projected to overtake Germany by ~2030 with GDP ≈ $7.3 trillion. Real GDP growth (Q2 2025-26): 8.2% — six-quarter high; Q1: 7.8%, Q4 FY25: 7.4%. Growth led by domestic demand, private consumption, credit expansion, and resilient services. Multiple international agencies project 6–7%+ medium-term growth. Relevance :  GS-III (Economy) Growth indicators, structural reforms, inclusion vs. size, global ranking vs per-capita gaps. Policy drivers for sustained growth and move toward #3 economy. What does “fourth-largest economy” mean? Nominal GDP (USD terms) used for global size comparison; reflects output × current prices × exchange rate. Real GDP measures volume growth (inflation-adjusted) — relevant for welfare and productivity trends. Per-capita income remains much lower than advanced economies — size ≠ prosperity level. Growth Drivers (Macro-Level Evidence) Domestic demand-led expansion Strong urban consumption, services, housing, and credit to commercial sector. Public capex & supply-side reforms Infrastructure push, manufacturing incentives, digitalisation, tax base formalisation. Financial conditions Benign liquidity, robust banking balance-sheets, rising credit off-take. Exports & resilience Gradual improvement despite global trade uncertainty. Growth Outlook — What agencies are projecting ? World Bank: ~6.5% (2026). IMF: 6.6% (2025), 6.2% (2026). OECD: 6.7% (2025), 6.2% (2026). ADB: 7.2% (2025). Fitch: 7.4% (FY26). S&P / Moody’s: 6.4–6.7% range, fastest in G20. Inference: Consensus anchors India as a high-growth outlier among large economies. Macroeconomic Stability Signals Inflation below lower tolerance band (as per release); Unemployment trending down; Exports improving; Demand conditions firm, especially urban; Credit flows strong → supports investment cycle. Strategic Significance of Reaching #4 (Neutral Assessment) Positives Scale effects: Larger economy → deeper markets, investment magnetism, geopolitical weight. Fiscal capacity over the long run → social sector, infrastructure, technology. Domestic-demand model offers insulation from global shocks. Constraints / Caveats Per-capita gaps remain wide; inequality and informality persist. Labour participation & skilling constraints in some segments. Private capex breadth uneven across sectors and firm sizes. Export diversification & manufacturing depth still evolving. State-capacity and governance heterogeneity affects outcomes. What will determine the move from #4 → #3 by 2030? Enablers Sustained 6.5–7%+ real growth with productivity gains. Manufacturing & supply-chain integration, logistics efficiency, energy transition. Human-capital investments — health, education, skilling. Judicial, land, labour, and compliance simplification to crowd-in private investment. Financial-sector depth (corporate bond market, MSME credit, fintech inclusion). Risks to watch Global slowdown / geo-economic fragmentation. Climate shocks / food-fuel volatility. Persistent core inflation or external-account pressures. Execution slippages in reforms / capex. Welfare & Distribution Lens (Neutral) Rapid GDP expansion must translate into: Employment intensity outside capital-heavy sectors. Rural income strengthening, not only urban consumption. Regional balance and social-mobility gains (health, education outcomes). High-growth with weak inclusion can dampen long-run productivity. Exam-ready Takeaways India has overtaken Japan in nominal GDP to become 4th-largest economy; remains fastest-growing major economy. Recent growth driven by domestic demand, credit expansion, macro-stability, and reforms. Medium-term consensus: 6–7%+ growth; pathway to #3 by ~2030 depends on investment depth, productivity, inclusion, and risk management. Size milestone ≠ per-capita prosperity — structural reforms and human-capital gains are decisive. Ammonium Sulfate in Delhi’s PM2.5  Why in news?  A CREA (Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air) analysis finds that ammonium sulfate — a secondary inorganic aerosol — accounts for ~1/3rd of Delhi’s annual PM2.5 load, rising sharply in post-monsoon and winter months when pollution episodes peak. Signals a shift from primary emissions to atmospheric chemical formation as a major pollution driver. Relevance : GS-III (Environment) Secondary aerosols, SO₂–NH₃ chemistry, coal emissions, winter spikes. Airshed governance + SO₂ control & ammonia management. Basics — What is Ammonium Sulfate? A secondary pollutant formed in the atmosphere, not directly emitted. Chemical composition: (NH₄)₂SO₄ Formed when: Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) → oxidises to sulfate (SO₄²⁻) Sulfate reacts with ammonia (NH₃) in the air → ammonium sulfate aerosol Appears as fine particulate matter (PM2.5) — microscopic particles that penetrate deep into lungs. Primary vs Secondary PM2.5  Primary PM2.5 → Directly emitted (dust resuspension, waste burning, diesel exhaust, industry). Secondary PM2.5 → Forms in the air via chemical reactions among precursor gases (SO₂, NOx, NH₃), influenced by humidity, temperature, and sunlight. Delhi’s problem: Secondary aerosols now contribute ≥ one-third of PM2.5 — meaning local emission control alone is not sufficient. How is Ammonium Sulfate Formed?  SO₂ sources Coal-fired power plants (dominant) Oil refineries, diesel combustion, brick kilns, industry, shipping NH₃ sources Fertiliser use & urea volatilisation Livestock waste, sewage, open drains Atmospheric process SO₂ → oxidises → forms sulfate Sulfate + Ammonia → Ammonium Sulfate aerosol (PM2.5) Persists for days, travels long distances, enabling regional pollution transport. Why is it a concern in India? (Evidence & Scale) India is the world’s largest emitter of SO₂, largely from coal-based thermal power generation. CREA satellite-based 2024 estimates: high ammonium-sulfate contribution in coal-dominated states like Chhattisgarh (42%), Odisha (41%), Jharkhand & Telangana (≈40%). High PM2.5 sulfate shares also reported in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal. Policy context 2023 policy exemption allowed ~78% of coal plants to avoid FGD (flue-gas desulphurisation) retrofits → weak SO₂ control, despite earlier deadlines. Experts flag mismatch between official compliance claims vs satellite-based SO₂ evidence. Why does it matter especially for Delhi-NCR? Delhi records one of the highest annual PM2.5 levels globally. Secondary aerosols: Travel hundreds of km into the city Intensify the regional nature of pollution Worsen episodes during post-monsoon stagnation & winter inversion. Result → Pollution spikes are driven not only by local sources, but also regional emissions + atmospheric chemistry. Seasonal Behaviour — Why spikes in winter/post-monsoon? High humidity & fog → speed up aqueous-phase chemical reactions. Lower temperatures → stabilise aerosols. Low wind & inversion → trap pollutants near surface. Agricultural NH₃ + regional SO₂ → accelerate ammonium-sulfate formation. CREA estimates: ~33% of Delhi’s annual PM2.5 from ammonium sulfate; ~49% contribution during post-monsoon & winter episodes. Health & Environmental Implications Deep-lung penetration → cardiopulmonary disease, stroke, cancer risk. Long atmospheric lifetime → regional haze & visibility loss. Sulfate aerosols influence radiative forcing and cloud interactions. Policy & Control — What needs focus ? Current gaps Insufficient SO₂ control at coal plants (slow FGD rollout). Weak NH₃ management in agriculture, wastewater, and livestock systems. Air-quality governance still city-centric, while the problem is regional & chemical-process driven. Priority strategies Accelerate FGD installation & tighten SO₂ emission compliance. Ammonia mitigation fertiliser efficiency, urease inhibitors, controlled application livestock waste management, sewage treatment upgrades. Regional airshed approach for Delhi-NCR (multi-state coordination). Expand chemical-speciation monitoring to track secondary aerosols. Integrate meteorology-based early-warning and episodic response plans. Takeaways Ammonium sulfate = secondary PM2.5 formed from SO₂ + NH₃ via atmospheric reactions. India = largest global SO₂ emitter, mainly due to coal power → high sulfate aerosol formation. In Delhi, ammonium sulfate contributes ~1/3rd of PM2.5 annually and ~1/2 during winter episodes. Pollution episodes are regional & chemistry-driven, not only local-source based. Effective control requires SO₂ cuts + NH₃ management + regional airshed policy. Farmer Suicides in India  Why in news?  A 28-year analysis of NCRB (1995–2023) by the Centre for Sustainable Agriculture (CSA) shows: >3.94 lakh farmer & agricultural-labour suicides in India (avg. ~13,600/year). Maharashtra & Karnataka report suicide rates ~2.5× the national average consistently since the mid-1990s. Southern & Western India account for ~72.5% of total suicides. Decline after 2010 (linked to MGNREGA & welfare measures) but sharp reversal in 2023, with labourers now forming the largest share of victims. Relevance : GS-III (Agriculture & Social Issues) Agrarian distress, debt-risk in rain-fed belts, labourer vulnerability. Role of MGNREGA/insurance; need for income-stabilisation reforms. Who is counted as a “farmer suicide” in NCRB data? Two categories Cultivators (farmers / landowners / leaseholders) Agricultural labourers (wage-dependent rural workers) Classification depends on primary livelihood, not landholding size. Limitations: Possible under-reporting / misclassification Excludes indirect distress deaths (migration, health collapse due to debt). Long-term trend (1995–2023) — What the data shows ? Total deaths: ~3,94,206 (farmers + agri labourers). Peak distress phase: 2000–2009 → >1.54 lakh deaths; 2002 highest year: 17,971 suicides. Decline phase: 2010–2019 → reduction associated with MGNREGA, debt relief, insurance expansion. Re-acceleration:2023 → 10,786 suicides 6,096 agricultural labourers 4,690 cultivators → shift toward wage-worker distress. Analysts caution: part of the 2023 spike may reflect delayed reporting post-COVID. Regional concentration — Where is the crisis most severe? Persistent high-burden states (since mid-1990s): Maharashtra — 4,151 suicides in 2023 (highest) Karnataka — 2,423 suicides in 2023 Andhra Pradesh + Telangana — >1.7 lakh suicides cumulatively (1995–2023) Madhya Pradesh — consistently among top contributors Pattern Crisis concentrated in rain-fed, commercial-crop, input-intensive belts of Western, Southern & Central India. Intra-state contrasts Telangana’s cotton-belt districts show structural distress Coastal Andhra historically reports lower suicide rates Structural drivers of farmer suicides (evidence-based synthesis) Economic & production-risk drivers High input costs + rising credit dependence Bt cotton expansion (early 2000s) in rain-fed belts: Higher seed & pesticide expenditure Pest resistance shifts, yield volatility Increased financial risk exposure for smallholders Repeated crop failures (rainfall variability, droughts) Weak price support / market instability Limited crop-insurance effectiveness Dependence on informal credit → debt traps Globalisation & policy context (late 1990s–2000s) Trade liberalisation & import competition Decline in producer price protection for small farmers Social-institutional vulnerabilities Fragmented landholdings Lack of non-farm employment buffers Mental-health invisibility & stigma Weak rural safety nets for labour households Why are agricultural labourers now more affected? (2023 shift) Wage insecurity & seasonal unemployment Exposure to food price shocks & inflation Lower access to institutional credit / insurance Weak bargaining power & limited social protection Distress amplified during drought / climate stress periods Implication: Distress is no longer confined to cultivator-debt crises — it reflects broader rural economic fragility. What worked during the decline phase (2010–2019)? Evidence-linked buffers MGNREGA — income support during lean seasons & drought years Debt relief & loan restructuring episodes Insurance expansion (partial protection against crop loss) Diversification into non-farm income in some regions State examples Kerala: decline from 1,118 (2005) → 105 (2014) West Bengal: reported zero farmer suicides by 2012 (per NCRB) Madhya Pradesh: sustained fall during mid-2010s Limitation: In rain-fed commercial-crop states (Maharashtra, Karnataka), gains remained fragile without deeper agrarian reform. Neutral assessment — What keeps the crisis persistent? Production model risk-heavy: mono-crop, rain-fed, input-intensive systems Policy bias toward price exposure, not income stabilisation Insurance coverage ≠ effective payout certainty Rural labour precarity rising faster than farm incomes Climate variability increasing frequency of shocks Institutional responses remain episodic, not structural Way forward — Evidence-backed policy priorities Risk-reduction in rain-fed belts Crop-diversification, climate-resilient seeds, water-harvesting Region-specific cotton-pest management & extension services Income and credit stability Strengthen price-support + procurement reach beyond cereals Reform crop-insurance (timely claims, basis-risk reduction) Expand institutional credit for tenants & labour households Labour-centric protection MGNREGA intensity in drought blocks Urban & rural non-farm job linkages Portable welfare for migrant labour Governance & data District-level distress-monitoring dashboards Suicide-prevention + mental-health services in rural blocks Accurate recording of farmer vs labourer categories Takeaways 3.94 lakh+ suicides (1995–2023); peak 2000–09; decline post-2010; sharp rise in 2023. Maharashtra & Karnataka = persistent epicentres; South-West India ~72.5% share. Drivers: debt-linked risk in Bt-cotton belts, crop failures, price volatility, weak insurance, labour precarity. Post-2010 decline linked to MGNREGA & welfare buffers; distress persists without structural agrarian reform. Recent shift: agricultural labourers now form majority of suicides → deepening rural vulnerability. PM-KUSUM 2.0  Why in news? Ahead of Union Budget 2026-27, the Union Government is preparing PM-KUSUM 2.0, a redesigned follow-on to the ongoing PM-KUSUM scheme (till March 2026). Objective: strengthen decentralised solar in agriculture, with sharper emphasis on feeder-level solarisation, agro-PV models, and improved financial viability. As of Nov 2025 → 10,203 MW installed under all components at an expenditure of ₹7,106 crore (MNRE). Relevance : GS-III (Energy & Agriculture) Decentralised solar, feeder-level solarisation, discom subsidy relief, climate-agri convergence. Design issues: financing, land/use, execution capacity. What is PM-KUSUM? Launched to: Reduce diesel dependence in irrigation Cut agriculture power subsidies & discom losses Provide reliable daytime power to farmers Support climate & energy-transition goals Three components (current phase) A: Decentralised grid-connected solar plants (≤2 MW) B: Stand-alone solar pumps C: Solarisation of existing grid-connected pumps (incl. feeder-level solarisation – FLS) Scheme outlay (current phase, till 2026): ₹34,422 crore; target ~34,800 MW Why PM-KUSUM 2.0? Strong demand from states, but implementation bottlenecks in Components A & C. Need for: More technically robust & bankable design Better integration of feeder-solar + decentralised plants Options like agro-PV and storage, where viable. Shift from scheme extension → new phase with revised architecture. What changes are likely in PM-KUSUM 2.0?  Sharper focus on feeder-level solarisation (Component C) Priority tool for reliable day-time power, lowering subsidy burden on discoms. Agro-PV inclusion under discussion Elevated panels enabling simultaneous cultivation + solar power Addresses land constraints in dense or politically sensitive regions. Higher capex expectation Costs likely to rise if agro-PV / storage are added. Greater private-sector participation in decentralised projects. Access-to-credit reforms via Agri Infrastructure Fund for Component-A projects. Financial architecture — What continues from current scheme ? Central Financial Assistance (CFA) ~30% of benchmark cost (up to 50% in NE & hilly states). Feeder-solarisation (Component C) — current norms CFA up to ₹1.05 crore/MW (≈30% of ₹3.5 crore/MW benchmark). Discom incentives: ₹6.6 lakh per MW per year (₹33 lakh over 5 yrs). State + beneficiary cost-sharing continues as core structure. Component-wise performance & lessons Component A — Decentralised grid-connected plants Challenges Low discovered tariffs → financially unviable after land & evacuation costs. Financing bottlenecks; high margin money discourages farmers. Land near substations scarce; delays in conversion & PPAs. DCR norms & procedural slowdowns. Corrective steps Routing projects through Agri Infrastructure Fund for concessional credit. Increasing alignment with feeder-solarisation demand centres. Component B — Stand-alone solar pumps Strengths High uptake in diesel-dependent & weak-grid regions. Strong farmer interest where power supply unreliable. Risks / gaps Up-front costs, quality control, O&M service gaps. Potential groundwater over-extraction without micro-irrigation / demand-side measures. Does not supply to grid → limited role in subsidy or discom reform. Component C — Solarisation of grid-connected pumps (incl. FLS) Strategic importance Seen as most scalable lever for dependable day-time supply, lower subsidy burden, reduced grid stress. Local-demand-first model; surplus exported to grid. Implementation constraints Feeder separation delays Payment lags from discoms Varied state-level execution capacity Policy direction Core focus area for PM-KUSUM 2.0. Alignment between Components A & C Not formally merged, but increasing functional linkage: Component-A plants serving as generation backbone for feeder-solarisation under C. Supplies agri load first, exports surplus to grid. Considered a scalable template for next phase; improves land-use efficiency and supports agro-PV models. Installed vs sanctioned progress (as reported) Component A: ~667 MW installed of ~9,964 MW sanctioned Component B: ~9.42 lakh pumps installed of ~13.09 lakh sanctioned Component C (IPS + FLS): ~11 lakh capacity solarised of ~35.8 lakh sanctioned Inference: Uptake strongest in Component B, reform leverage highest in Component C, structural constraints persist in Component A. Why feeder-level solarisation matters ? Benefits Predictable day-time power for irrigation Lower cross-subsidy & budgetary subsidy burden Reduced technical losses & grid stress Enables localised renewable transition in agriculture Risks / prerequisites Requires payment security to developers Timely approvals & feeder separation Strong state-level coordination & discom capacity Takeaways PM-KUSUM 2.0 aims to re-architect decentralised solar for agriculture, not just extend the old scheme. Feeder-level solarisation (Component C) emerges as the central reform lever. Agro-PV + A-C alignment expected to improve scalability & land efficiency. Financing, payment security, feeder separation, and execution capacity remain critical bottlenecks. Outcomes will shape the intersection of agriculture, power-sector reform, and climate transition in rural India.