In-Depth PIB Analysis2 Items Core TopicImportantConcise Economy — Agriculture & Food SecurityGS Paper III 01Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses — One Year On02PM Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana — Year One of District Convergence Economy — Agriculture & Food SecurityGeneral Studies Paper III 01 Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses: One Year On — Can the World’s Largest Producer Stop Importing? Core TopicGS-III · Agriculture — Cropping Pattern, MSP, Food Processing, Food SecurityGS-II · Government Policies — NutritionPrelims + MainsPIB · Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare · Backgrounder, 11 Oct 2026 On 11 October 2026, the Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses completed its first year. The Mission has an outlay of ₹11,440 crore for 2025-26 to 2030-31, and it is India’s most direct attempt so far to resolve an old paradox: India is the world’s largest producer of pulses, yet it has long been one of the largest importers of pulses. ◈ Basics First — What Are Pulses? Pulses are the dried edible seeds of plants of the legume family (Fabaceae / Leguminosae). Under the FAO definition, a pulse is a legume harvested only for dry grain. That definition leaves out legumes eaten green (such as green peas and green beans) and legumes grown mainly for oil (such as soybean and groundnut). Biological nitrogen fixation: the root nodules of pulse plants host Rhizobium bacteria. These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia that the plant can use. Pulses therefore need little urea and leave the soil richer for the next cereal crop, which makes them well suited to crop rotation and intercropping. Nutrition: pulses contain 20–25% protein, more than twice that of wheat and close to three times that of rice. Pulses are rich in lysine, the amino acid in which cereals are weak. Cereals in turn supply methionine, in which pulses are weak. That is why dal–roti and dal–chawal together give a more complete protein. Seasons: Kharif pulses are tur/arhar (pigeon pea), urad (black gram) and moong (green gram). Rabi pulses are chana (gram/chickpea), masoor (lentil) and field peas. Moong and urad are also grown as summer/zaid crops. Gram is the single largest pulse by production. Agro-ecology: most pulses are grown on rainfed and often marginal land, with low water use. This makes them climate-friendly but also monsoon-dependent. Major producing States (as listed in the release): Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal ◈ Static Background — Why India Fell Short in Pulses The Green Revolution of the mid-1960s concentrated four things on wheat and rice grown on irrigated land: high-yielding varieties, irrigation, assured MSP and public procurement. Pulses did not get the same package and were pushed onto rainfed, low-input land. Pulse production did not keep pace with population growth. Per-capita net availability of pulses was close to 69 g/day in 1961 and has not regained that level since. The shortfall has been met through imports. 1986: the Technology Mission on Oilseeds was launched. Pulses were brought under it in 1990. 2004: ISOPOM (Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize) was launched. 2007-08: the National Food Security Mission (NFSM) was launched for rice, wheat and pulses. It followed a National Development Council resolution of May 2007. 2016: the following steps came after the drought years of 2014-15 and 2015-16 and the price spike that followed: a 20 lakh tonne buffer stock of pulses was created under the Price Stabilisation Fund; the UN General Assembly marked 2016 as the International Year of Pulses; a committee led by the then Chief Economic Adviser recommended higher MSPs, stronger procurement and a stable trade policy for pulses. 2018: PM-AASHA (Pradhan Mantri Annadata Aay SanraksHan Abhiyan) was launched. It has three parts: Price Support Scheme (PSS) — physical procurement; Price Deficiency Payment Scheme (PDPS) — payment of the gap between MSP and market price; Private Procurement & Stockist Scheme (PPSS) — a pilot for procurement by private agencies. 2025: the six-year Mission was announced in the Union Budget 2025-26, approved by the Union Cabinet on 1 October 2025 and launched on 11 October 2025. Figure 1 — Four decades of pulses policy: from technology missions to “Aatmanirbharta” 1986 / 1990Technology Missionon Oilseeds (pulsesadded in 1990)2004ISOPOM — oilseeds,pulses, oil palm, maize2007-08NFSM — rice, wheatand pulses201620 lakh t buffer stock;UN Intl. Year of Pulses2018PM-AASHA —PSS · PDPS · PPSS2025Mission forAatmanirbhartain Pulses The Mission is the first pulses-only national mission that links seed, area expansion, assured procurement and processing in one value-chain design. ◈ Constitutional & Legal Anchor Agriculture is a State subject (Entry 14, List II). Central missions therefore work through State departments, using a Centrally Sponsored design. Trade, commerce, production, supply and distribution of foodstuffs fall under Entry 33, List III (Concurrent List). This entry is the basis for the Essential Commodities Act, 1955, under which stock limits on pulses are imposed. Article 47 (Directive Principles): the State has a duty to raise the level of nutrition. Article 48 (Directive Principles): the State is to organise agriculture on modern and scientific lines. ▤ Scheme at a Glance Outlay: ₹11,440 crore. Tenure: six years, 2025-26 to 2030-31. Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare. Approving authority: the Union Cabinet (October 2025), after an announcement in the Union Budget 2025-26. Focus crops: tur (arhar), urad and masoor, the three most import-dependent pulses. Coverage: a cluster-based approach in 489 districts. The aim is to add 35 lakh hectares of pulse area, especially in rice-fallow lands, to reach 310 lakh hectares. Seed support: 87.5 lakh free seed kits and 126 lakh quintals of certified seed over six years, with emphasis on climate-resilient varieties. Market support: 100% procurement of tur, urad and masoor at MSP from registered farmers, by NAFED and NCCF, for four years (2025-26 to 2028-29). Processing: 1,000 pulse processing units (dal mills). Stated targets: about 350 lakh tonnes of production and a yield of 1,130 kg/ha by 2030-31 (government projection). Where India Stands — 2025-26 at a Glance 274.09 LT Production 2025-26 (3rd AE), up from 256.83 LT 286.46 L ha Area, up from 277.20 lakh ha 957 kg/ha Yield, up from 926 kg/ha +70.7% Procurement, 18.40 LT → 31.41 LT From 2024-25 to 2025-26, according to the release: production rose by about 6.7%; area grew by about 3.3%; yield improved by about 3.3%. The 2025-26 figures are 3rd Advance Estimates, so they can still be revised before the final estimates. The Arithmetic of the 2030-31 Target Production equals area × yield. The targets fit this identity: 310 lakh ha × 1,130 kg/ha ≈ 350 lakh tonnes. Reaching them from the 2025-26 base needs: about 8.2% more area; about 18.1% higher yield; about 27.7% more production, which works out to roughly 5% compound growth every year for five years. On a logarithmic split, about two-thirds of the required growth has to come from yield. That needs about 3.4% yield growth every year, sustained for five years. Figure 2 — Gap between 2025-26 levels and the Mission’s 2030-31 targets 2025-26 (3rd Advance Estimates)2030-31 targetGapArealakh hectares286.46310+8.2%Yieldkg per hectare9571,130+18.1%Productionlakh tonnes274.09350+27.7%Bars in each row are scaled to that row's 2030-31 target (target = full length) The largest gap is in yield (+18.1%), not area. Productivity, more than area expansion, decides whether the Mission meets its target. Computed from the figures in the PIB release. Trade: Import Bill Down, Exports Up Imports fell by 31.52% in value, from ₹46,427.60 crore (2024-25) to ₹31,793.59 crore (2025-26). Exports rose by 13.40%, from US$ 855 million to US$ 969.53 million, on a volume of 10.01 lakh tonnes. The main export destinations were China, the UAE, Bangladesh, the USA and Sri Lanka. Figure 3 — Pulses trade: imports versus exports, 2024-25 to 2025-26 Imports are given in ₹ crore and exports in US$ million, so the two bars cannot be compared directly. Even after the fall, the import bill is still several times larger than export earnings. Image courtesy Press Information Bureau (PIB), Government of India; reproduced with credit for educational use. Main import sources: Canada and Australia — mainly lentils, peas and chickpea; Myanmar — tur and urad; East African countries such as Mozambique — tur. India has signed long-term government-to-government MoUs for tur and urad supply, for example with Mozambique and Myanmar. MSP and Assured Procurement — The Market Guarantee How MSP is set: the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommends the Minimum Support Price, and the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) approves it. MSP is announced for 22 mandated crops, and a Fair and Remunerative Price is fixed for sugarcane. The CACP was set up in 1965 as the Agricultural Prices Commission and renamed in 1985. The cost benchmark: since 2018-19, MSP has been fixed at at least 1.5 times the A2+FL cost of production. A2+FL means the paid-out costs plus the imputed value of family labour. Figure 4 — MSP for the three focus pulses (₹ per quintal) MSP rose as follows between 2024-25 and 2026-27: tur ₹7,550 → ₹8,450 (+11.92%), urad ₹7,400 → ₹8,200 (+10.81%) and masoor ₹6,700 → ₹7,000 (+4.48%). These are cumulative two-season increases, not annual ones. Image courtesy Press Information Bureau (PIB), Government of India; reproduced with credit for educational use. ▤ Procurement — The Numbers in the Release Who procures: NAFED (set up in 1958) and NCCF (set up in 1965), both multi-State cooperative societies, buy 100% of tur, urad and masoor offered at MSP for 2025-26 to 2028-29. This goes beyond the usual PSS practice of procuring only a capped share of production. NCCF dashboard (as of 17 June 2026): 10.55 lakh tonnes procured across 9 States; ₹7,047 crore paid directly to farmers; 4.69 lakh of 7.74 lakh registered farmers benefited, about 61%. Kharif 2025-26: 7.89 lakh tonnes procured, worth ₹6,431 crore, benefiting 3.66 lakh farmers. Rabi 2026-27: 23.51 lakh tonnes procured, with ₹14,217 crore released, benefiting 10.20 lakh farmers. Total pulses procurement: 18.40 lakh tonnes (2024-25) rose to 31.41 lakh tonnes (2025-26). That equals roughly 11.5% of 2025-26 production. Note: the release draws these figures from different windows and agencies, so they cannot be added to each other. Year-One Delivery Scorecard Dal mills: 528 of 1,000 units (52.8%) have been allocated to States/UTs in Phase I. Separately, 23 units were approved under the CEFPPC component of the Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana, and 18 of these are complete. Seed kits for rice-fallows: 9.25 lakh kits were distributed in Rabi 2025-26. That is about 10.6% of the six-year target of 87.5 lakh. Meeting the target at an even pace would need about 14.6 lakh kits a year. Rice-fallows are paddy fields left uncultivated in rabi after the kharif rice harvest, concentrated in eastern India. Short-duration pulses grown there on residual soil moisture are the Mission’s main route to expanding area. Digital Architecture — Institutions & Terms to Know Three-tier Steering Committees at the national, State and district levels oversee planning and implementation. Krishi Mapper geo-fences and geo-tags plots, and tracks seed-variety demonstrations and yields in real time. SATHI portal (Seed Authentication, Traceability & Holistic Inventory) was launched in 2023. It tracks the seed life cycle from production through certification to sale, with traceability on seed bags. AgriStack is part of the Digital Agriculture Mission (approved in September 2024). It provides Farmer IDs and the Digital Crop Survey, and is linked here with Soil Health Card data. The Soil Health Card scheme dates from 2015. e-Samriddhi is the farmer registration-cum-procurement portal that enables direct payment of MSP. Vistaar provides advisory and market information. ◆ Prelims Pointers PMKSY acronym trap: the release uses PMKSY for the Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana (food processing, MoFPI, 2017). This is different from the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (irrigation, 2015, known for “Har Khet Ko Pani”). Chickpea/gram is the largest pulse by production, but it is not one of the three crops covered by the 100% procurement guarantee. World Pulses Day is observed on 10 February, as designated by the UN after the 2016 International Year of Pulses. NAFED and NCCF are the central nodal agencies for PSS procurement of pulses. Why It Matters Nutrition security: pulses are the main affordable protein in a largely vegetarian diet. Under-nutrition remains high: NFHS-5 recorded stunting in 35.5% of children under five. Foreign exchange and strategic exposure: heavy import dependence exposes India to weather and policy shocks in a small number of supplier countries. Price stability: pulses are among the most volatile parts of food inflation. Domestic shortfalls have repeatedly forced stock limits and emergency imports. Sustainability: nitrogen fixation and low water use make pulses a natural crop-diversification option away from the water-intensive paddy–wheat system. Rainfed incomes: pulses are grown mostly by small and marginal farmers in dryland areas, so assured prices reach farmers whom earlier procurement mostly bypassed. The Critical View Yield is the binding constraint: about two-thirds of the needed gain has to come from yield, which is the hardest lever to move. Most pulse land is rainfed, seed replacement rates are low, and pests such as pod borer and diseases such as wilt cause heavy losses. One year is not a trend: part of the 2025-26 rise may reflect a favourable monsoon. The figures are also advance estimates. India announced near self-sufficiency after the 2016-18 production surge, and that later proved temporary. Value is not volume: the 31.5% fall in imports is measured in rupee value. It may partly reflect lower global prices or tariff changes rather than smaller quantities. Volume data is needed to judge real import substitution. Limited reach of procurement: Procurement covers only about one-ninth of production and operates in a few States. About 39% of registered farmers on the NCCF dashboard did not benefit. Tenant and unregistered farmers remain outside the system. The 2028-29 cliff: the 100% procurement guarantee ends in 2028-29, two years before the 2030-31 target year. If assured buying stops, farmers may switch back to other crops. Stocks and fiscal cost: open-ended procurement builds public stocks, which then need storage and disposal channels such as Bharat Dal, the PDS, ICDS and PM POSHAN. Each of these carries losses and subsidy costs. Unstable trade policy: India has switched repeatedly between duty-free imports and stock limits under the Essential Commodities Act. These swings blunt the price signal that the MSP increases are meant to send to farmers. Way Forward Pursue yield-first R&D: short-duration, pest-resistant and machine-harvestable varieties, through ICAR institutes including the Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur. Adopt a predictable trade-policy framework with rule-based import duties in place of ad hoc switches. Extend procurement through FPOs and PACS, and use the price deficiency payment model in States where physical procurement is weak. Build post-2028 continuity so farmers can see assured prices up to the target year. Link procurement to nutrition schemes, such as pulses in PM POSHAN, the PDS and ICDS, to create stable domestic demand. ✎ Mains Practice Question India is the world’s largest producer of pulses, yet it has long been among the largest importers. Examine the structural reasons for this paradox, and evaluate how far the Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses addresses them. 15 marks · 250 words 02 PM Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana at One: Testing the “Aspirational Districts” Model on Agriculture Core TopicGS-III · Agriculture — Productivity, Irrigation, Credit, StorageGS-II · Governance — Centre–State Schemes, Convergence, FederalismPrelims + MainsPIB · Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare · Backgrounder, 10 Oct 2026 The Prime Minister Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana (PMDDKY) completed its first year on 11 October 2026. The scheme takes the district-convergence model of the Aspirational Districts Programme and applies it to farm productivity in 100 lagging districts. It does this by combining 36 existing Central schemes under a single District Action Plan, rather than starting a new standalone programme. ◈ Basics First — Key Concepts Productivity (yield): output per hectare. It is the main measure of how efficiently land is farmed. Cropping intensity: Gross Cropped Area ÷ Net Sown Area × 100. It shows how many crops a plot carries in a year. A low value usually means a single-cropped, rainfed district without assured irrigation. Agricultural credit: Short-term credit means crop loans, mainly through the Kisan Credit Card (introduced in 1998). Long-term credit means investment credit for wells, machinery and similar assets. Banks must lend 18% of Adjusted Net Bank Credit to agriculture under priority sector lending norms. Convergence: combining the funds and activities of several existing schemes at one delivery point (here, the district) under one plan, instead of launching a new scheme with its own budget. The “3Cs” of the aspirational model: Convergence of schemes; Collaboration between the Centre, States and district officials; Competition among districts, through public ranking on a dashboard. ◈ Static Background — Area-Based Development in Indian Agriculture PMDDKY belongs to a long Indian tradition of area-based agricultural planning, which targets particular districts or regions rather than the whole country. 1960-61: the Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) applied a “package approach” of seeds, fertiliser, credit and extension in seven districts. It was followed in 1964-65 by the Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP), and it laid the ground for the Green Revolution. 1970s: programmes targeting specific regions: the Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP, 1973-74); the Command Area Development Programme (CADP, 1974-75), to close the gap between irrigation potential created and potential actually used. 2007-08: the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) required States to prepare Comprehensive District Agriculture Plans. This was the first large push toward decentralised farm planning. January 2018: NITI Aayog launched the Aspirational Districts Programme (ADP): 112 districts, tracked on 49 indicators across five themes; the theme weights are health & nutrition 30%, education 30%, agriculture & water resources 20%, financial inclusion & skill development 10% and basic infrastructure 10%. 2023: the Aspirational Blocks Programme extended the same model to 500 blocks. 2025: PMDDKY was announced in the Union Budget 2025-26, approved by the Union Cabinet on 16 July 2025 and launched on 11 October 2025. It is an agriculture-only version of the aspirational model. Figure 5 — From IADP to PMDDKY: six decades of area-based agricultural planning 1960-61IADP — packageapproach, 7 districts1973-75DPAP (1973-74)CADP (1974-75)2007-08RKVY — DistrictAgriculture Plans2018Aspirational DistrictsProgramme (112)2023Aspirational BlocksProgramme (500)2025PMDDKY — 100AspirationalAgri. Districts PMDDKY combines IADP’s focus on selected districts with ADP’s dashboard-driven competition. ◈ Constitutional Anchor Agriculture is a State subject (Entry 14, List II). This is why PMDDKY district plans have to be absorbed into State departments’ annual action plans before any funds are released. The 73rd Amendment (Eleventh Schedule) lists subjects that may be devolved to Panchayats. Two of them are relevant here: agriculture including extension (item 1); minor irrigation, water management and watershed development (item 3). Article 243ZD provides for District Planning Committees to consolidate panchayat and municipal plans. This is the constitutional home for district-level plans. ▤ Scheme at a Glance Outlay: ₹24,000 crore a year, drawn mainly from the convergence of existing schemes, as announced at Cabinet approval in July 2025. Tenure: six years, starting from 2025-26. Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare. The monitoring dashboard is hosted on the NITI Aayog portal. Approving authority: the Union Cabinet (16 July 2025). Coverage: 100 Aspirational Agricultural Districts, with at least one in every State. Selection criteria: districts were chosen on three indicators: low productivity; low cropping intensity; low disbursement of agricultural credit. Each State’s number of districts depends on its share of net cropped area and operational holdings. Mechanism: convergence of 36 Central schemes across 11 Ministries/Departments, together with State schemes and the private sector. Six objectives: productivity; crop diversification and sustainable practices; post-harvest storage; irrigation; short- and long-term credit; governance and service delivery. Stated reach: about 1.7 crore farmers (government projection at approval). How It Works — The Three-Tier Machinery District level: the District Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana Samiti, headed by the District Collector/DM, prepares and carries out the District Action Plan (DAP). State level: the State Samiti, headed by the Chief Secretary, reviews and monitors the district plans. National level: two committees: the National Executive Committee, chaired by the Union Minister of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare; the National Monitoring Committee, chaired by the Secretary, DA&FW. What a DAP contains: each DAP starts from a baseline and diagnostic study of the district. It then sets outcome targets, annual milestones and interventions, with each intervention linked to a specific scheme. How a DAP gets funded: DAPs go to the relevant State departments to be included in their annual action plans. Approvals and fund release follow from there. Monitoring: progress is tracked on 121 indicators (74 output and 47 outcome). Districts are ranked every month on the output indicators. Figure 6 — PMDDKY implementation architecture THREE-TIER STRUCTURENational ExecutiveCommitteeChair: Union Minister, A&FWNational MonitoringCommitteeChair: Secretary, DA&FWState Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana SamitiChair: Chief Secretary · reviews and monitors District PlansDistrict Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana SamitiChair: District Collector / DM · prepares and implements DAPDAP → State departments' annual action plans → approvals and fund releaseCONVERGENCE INPUTS36 Central schemesacross 11 Ministries / DeptsState schemesPrivate sectorincl. CPSE CSR (FY27–FY28)PM-DDKY Dashboard(hosted on the NITI Aayog portal)121 indicators = 74 output+ 47 outcomeMonthly ranking on outputs Planning sits at the district, but approvals and money flow through State departments. The scheme works only if Centre, State and district are aligned. Year One — What Has Been Done 100 / 100 Districts with DAPs under implementation 121 Indicators across 36 schemes 18.85 → 46.89 Average score, Apr–Aug 2026 +28.04 Points gained in five months The dashboard went live in late October 2025, and monthly rankings began in November 2025. Committees have been set up at all three levels. All 100 districts have reported output data up to August 2026 and outcome data for FY 2025-26. The Department of Public Enterprises has listed adoption of DDKY districts as a CSR activity for CPSEs in FY 2026-27 and 2027-28. CSR basics: CSR is mandated under Section 135 of the Companies Act, 2013. Companies above set thresholds must spend 2% of their average net profit of the preceding three years. Figure 7 — Objective-wise progress of the 100 districts (April → August 2026) The scores rose in all six objectives. The largest gains were in productivity and crop diversification, and the smallest in storage and irrigation. Image courtesy Press Information Bureau (PIB), Government of India (data as of 1 September 2026); reproduced with credit for educational use. ▤ Reading the Scorecard — Gains by Objective Agricultural productivity: 1.50 → 8.08 (+6.58), the largest gain. Crop diversification & sustainable practices: 4.08 → 10.18 (+6.10). Governance & service delivery: 7.41 → 12.05 (+4.64), the highest absolute score. Agricultural credit: 2.40 → 6.53 (+4.13). Irrigation infrastructure: 1.38 → 4.91 (+3.53). Post-harvest storage: 2.14 → 5.19 (+3.05), the smallest gain. How the composite is built: the six objective scores add up to 18.91 (April) and 46.94 (August). These match the published averages (18.85 and 46.89) apart from rounding. So the composite appears to be the sum of the six objective scores. The release does not state the maximum score or the weight given to each objective. The scores therefore cannot be read as percentages of the goal achieved. ◆ Prelims Pointers PMDDKY covers 100 districts, the ADP 112 districts, and the Aspirational Blocks Programme 500 blocks. The three selection indicators are low productivity, low cropping intensity and low credit disbursement. Irrigation is an objective of the scheme, not a selection criterion. The State Samiti is chaired by the Chief Secretary. The National Monitoring Committee is chaired by the Secretary, DA&FW, not by NITI Aayog. The indicator split is 74 output + 47 outcome = 121, across 36 schemes and 11 Ministries/Departments. Why It Matters Regional disparity: national averages hide large gaps between districts in yield, irrigation and credit. Directing resources to the weakest districts lifts the national average more cheaply than further investment in districts that are already productive. Fragmented delivery: a farmer deals with dozens of schemes run by separate departments. A single district plan can sequence these schemes: irrigation before diversification, and storage before procurement. Outcome culture: monthly ranking brings to farm administration the competitive and data-driven management that the ADP introduced in health and education. Complements the Pulses Mission: PMDDKY is an area-based mission (it improves whole districts), while the Pulses Mission is crop-based (it improves one crop group). Low-cropping-intensity districts are often the same rice-fallow areas the Pulses Mission targets for expansion. The Critical View Outputs are not outcomes: The monthly rankings use output (activity) indicators, while outcome data is reported only once a year. A jump of 28 points in five months may reflect plans being rolled out and data being reported more fully, as much as any change in yields, cropping intensity or credit on the ground. Little or no new money: because the outlay comes mainly from existing schemes, the scheme mostly re-prioritises spending. Districts may get attention without getting additional resources. Rigid scheme guidelines: Centrally Sponsored Schemes come with uniform norms. These limit how far a district plan can actually be tailored to local needs. Slow-moving areas lag: irrigation and storage are capital-heavy and take years to build, and they recorded the smallest gains. Progress depends on other schemes, such as the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (2020, a ₹1 lakh crore financing facility) and the irrigation schemes. Federal friction: agriculture is a State subject, so results depend on State capacity and political buy-in. The plans also bypass District Planning Committees and Panchayats, which weakens local ownership. The limits of ranking: public league tables can be unfair to structurally disadvantaged districts, such as hilly, tribal or drought-prone ones. They can also encourage gaming of indicators. Reviews of the ADP model have stressed the need for independent verification of data. Way Forward Commission an independent third-party evaluation of the outcome indicators, and publish the scoring method, including the maximum score and the weights. Provide untied flexi-funds at the district level, so DAPs can pay for local priorities that existing scheme guidelines do not cover. Give Panchayats and District Planning Committees a formal role in preparing DAPs. Front-load spending on irrigation and storage, since these take longest to show results. Link districts that overlap with the Pulses Mission clusters to the FPO and PACS networks for marketing. ✎ Mains Practice Question From the Aspirational Districts Programme to the PM Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana, district-level convergence has become India’s preferred template for tackling backwardness. Critically examine the strengths and limitations of this approach in reducing regional disparities in agricultural productivity. 15 marks · 250 words

Editorials, Opinions & Explained2 Items Core TopicImportantConcise OpinionsSigned Op-Eds · GS III 01Next Farm Revolution: From Food Security to Farmers’ Incomes ExplainedData & Context · GS II 02RTI Act at 21: Gaps in Proactive Disclosure (Section 4) OpinionsSigned Op-Eds & Columns 01 Beyond Food Security: Why the Next Farm Revolution Must Target Farmers’ Incomes Core TopicOpinionGS-III · Agriculture — Irrigation, Food Security, Buffer Stocks, Farm Incomes, Agri-TradePrelims + MainsThe Indian Express · From Plate to Plough (Ashok Gulati) An agricultural economist looks back at 25 years of farm policy, first in Gujarat (2001-02 to 2013-14) and then at the national level (2014-15 to 2025-26). His conclusion is that India has largely secured food security in staples. The open problem is the next one: significantly raising farmers’ incomes. ◈ Basics First — Output, Growth and Income Are Not the Same Agricultural growth: the yearly change in the real Gross Value Added (GVA) of agriculture and allied sectors. It measures the value of output, not the income of each farmer. Farmers’ income: what an agricultural household earns from crops, livestock, wages and non-farm business. It can stay flat even when GVA rises, because of four factors: output prices may fall; input costs may rise; landholdings keep shrinking; more people remain dependent on the same land. Food security: the FAO framework defines it through four dimensions: availability of food; access to food; utilisation of food; stability of the first three over time. Large staple surpluses settle availability, but not necessarily access or nutrition. Buffer-stocking norms: the Government sets the minimum stocks of rice and wheat that the Central Pool should hold at the start of each quarter. Stocks far above these norms tie up working capital and add storage costs. ◈ Static Background — The Arc of Indian Agricultural Policy 1960s: the Green Revolution combined HYV seeds, fertiliser, irrigation, MSP and procurement. The Food Corporation of India and the Agricultural Prices Commission were both set up in 1965. 1970 onwards: Operation Flood (the White Revolution) built India’s dairy sector through the cooperative model. It was followed by other sectoral “revolutions”: the Yellow (oilseeds) and the Blue (fisheries). Narmada: the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal gave its award in 1979. The Sardar Sarovar Project in Gujarat is the terminal dam on this west-flowing river, which runs through a rift valley between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. 2002: the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) approved Bt cotton, India’s first GM crop approved for commercial cultivation. 2016: the Union Government set a target of doubling farmers’ income by 2022. An inter-ministerial committee, whose report was completed in 2018, mapped out a strategy covering productivity, costs, prices and diversification. Income data: the latest NSO Situation Assessment Survey (77th Round, 2018-19) estimated the average monthly income of an agricultural household at ₹10,218. Of this, about 40% came from wages and only about 37% from crop cultivation. Small holdings: the Agriculture Census 2015-16 put the average holding at 1.08 ha. About 86% of holdings were small or marginal. ◈ Constitutional Anchor Agriculture (Entry 14), water and irrigation (Entry 17) and markets and fairs (Entry 28) are in the State List. This is why most farm reforms depend on the States. Trade and commerce in foodstuffs falls under Entry 33 of the Concurrent List. Inter-State river waters are covered by Entry 56 of the Union List and by Article 262, under which the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956 was enacted. Article 48 (Directive Principles): the State is to organise agriculture on modern and scientific lines. The Argument of the Op-Ed — In Brief The Gujarat phase (2001-02 to 2013-14): the author credits Gujarat with farm growth of over 9% a year, a rate he says was rare even in Punjab at the height of the Green Revolution. He traces the growth to infrastructure and technology rather than to price support. Water: check dams and a larger share of Narmada waters for irrigation. Power: separate electricity feeders for irrigation and for rural homes, so that farm power came reliably and at predictable hours. This was Gujarat’s Jyotigram Yojana (2003). Roads: rural roads connecting farmers to markets. Extension: the Krishi Mahotsav campaigns, which brought officials and private firms to villages to demonstrate technology. Technology: the spread of Bt cotton after its approval in 2002. The national phase (2014-15 to 2025-26): this phase began with back-to-back droughts in 2014 and 2015, which the author notes had happened only three times in a century. He says policy responded by prioritising irrigation and crop insurance through the PM Fasal Bima Yojana. Irrigation: close to 60% of gross cropped area is now irrigated. Rice: India is the largest producer and exporter of rice. Stocks: even after giving 5 kg of free foodgrain per person per month under the PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana, stocks stand at more than four times the buffer norm for rice and nearly three times the norm for wheat. Trade (2025-26): agri-exports of about US$ 33 billion, led by rice and marine products, against agri-imports of about US$ 40 billion, mainly edible oils and pulses. Growth: agricultural GDP grew by about 4% a year on average from 2014-15 to 2025-26. The thesis: the next farm revolution must be judged by whether it significantly raises farmers’ incomes, and not only by output or food security. Figure 1 — From production-led growth to an income-led agenda Gujarat, 2001-02 to 2013-14growth above 9% a year (as cited)India, 2014-15 to 2025-26about 4% a year (as cited)The next phasegoal: farmers’ incomesWater: check dams,Narmada watersPower: separate feedersfor farms and homesRoads to marketsExtension: KrishiMahotsavTechnology: Bt cotton(approved 2002)Irrigation: about 60% ofgross cropped areaCrop insurance: PMFBYFree foodgrains: 5 kgper person per monthStocks well abovebuffer normsLargest rice producerand exporterHigh-value farming:horticulture, livestock, fishMarket and price reform:stable trade policyInput subsidiesmoved to direct transfersFPOs, processing,value chainsAgri R&D, climate resilienceColumns 1–2 summarise the op-ed’s account; column 3 lists levers commonly debated in policy literature (Legacy analysis) Both earlier phases relied on supply-side infrastructure: water, power, insurance and stocks. The third phase requires demand-side and market reforms. ▤ The Numbers in the Op-Ed (as cited) 9%+ Gujarat farm growth, 2001-14 ~4% All-India farm GDP growth, 2014-26 ~60% Gross cropped area irrigated 4× / 3× Rice / wheat stocks vs buffer norm Reading Between the Lines — An Analytical View Surplus is not prosperity: stocks three to four times the buffer norm are a sign of over-procurement of rice and wheat. They lock in the paddy–wheat cycle, raise the food subsidy and carrying costs, and weaken the incentive to diversify. Food security has become a problem of managing surpluses. Irrigation that depends on groundwater: much of the gain in irrigated area comes from tubewells. Groundwater supplies roughly three-fifths of irrigation, and free or flat-rate power in many States encourages over-extraction. Separating farm and household feeders is a tool for rationing farm power as well as supplying it. The trade gap points to oilseeds and pulses: On the cited figures, India runs an agri-trade deficit of about US$ 7 billion, driven by edible oils and pulses. These are exactly the crops targeted by the National Mission on Edible Oils: Oil Palm (2021) and Oilseeds (2024). They are also targeted by the Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses (2025). Four per cent is respectable, not transformative: national growth of about 4% is less than half Gujarat’s reported rate. A diverse, largely rainfed country cannot simply replicate the model of one State. Where incomes are actually made: the faster-growing parts of agriculture are livestock, fisheries and horticulture. Policy, however, remains centred on cereals, MSP and input subsidies. Figure 2 — India’s agri-trade balance, 2025-26 India’s agricultural trade, 2025-26 (US$ billion, as cited)Exportsled by rice, marine products~33Importsmainly edible oils, pulses~40On these cited figures, imports exceed exports by about US$ 7 billion. The import bill is dominated by edible oils and pulses. Self-reliance in these two crop groups is the most direct way to turn the agri-trade balance positive. Figures as cited in the op-ed. A Critical View of the Argument Base effects: growth rates measured over a period that starts in drought-affected years tend to look higher. Long-run trend comparisons are more reliable than averages over a tenure. What caused the growth: farm output also depends on the monsoon, global prices and technologies that were cleared nationally, such as Bt cotton. Not all of it can be traced to State policy. Ecological costs: expanding irrigation brings aquifer depletion, soil degradation and fertiliser imbalance. These costs are not captured in GVA. Out-of-date income data: the most recent farm-income survey is from 2018-19, and the 2022 income-doubling target was never formally assessed. Without regular income data, any income-centred agenda is hard to measure. Way Forward — Levers for an Income Revolution Diversify into high-value farming, supported by cold chains, food processing and export infrastructure. Reform price policy: adopt predictable trade rules, use stock limits and export bans only rarely, and supplement MSP with price deficiency payments. Rationalise input subsidies: move fertiliser, power and water subsidies towards direct benefit transfers that do not depend on how much input is used. Aggregate small farmers through FPOs (the 10,000 FPO scheme, 2020) and cooperatives, so they gain bargaining power in markets. Invest in R&D, climate-resilient seeds and digital agriculture (AgriStack), and create rural non-farm jobs so that fewer people depend on farming. ◆ Prelims Pointers Jyotigram Yojana (Gujarat, 2003) separated agricultural feeders from rural domestic feeders. The GEAC functions under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. Its rules derive from the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. PMFBY began in Kharif 2016. Farmers’ premium is 2% of sum insured for Kharif, 1.5% for Rabi food and oilseed crops, and 5% for commercial and horticultural crops. PMGKAY began in 2020. Since 1 January 2024, it provides free foodgrains to NFSA beneficiaries for five years. ✎ Mains Practice Question India has achieved food security in staples, yet farm incomes remain low and stagnant. Discuss why gains in agricultural production have not translated into proportionate gains in farmers’ incomes, and suggest a strategy for an income-centred agricultural transformation. 15 marks · 250 words ExplainedData Point · Text & Context 02 RTI Act at 21: Why the Promise of Proactive Disclosure Remains Unfulfilled Core TopicExplainedGS-II · Governance — Transparency & Accountability, RTI, Statutory Bodies (CIC)GS-IV · Probity — Information SharingPrelims + MainsThe Hindu · Data Point The Right to Information Act, 2005 completed 21 years on 12 October 2026. The Act had two intended routes to information: filing a request, and proactive (suo motu) disclosure by government bodies. A data analysis shows that the second route remains weak. As a result, requests and appeals keep piling up. ◈ Basics First — How the RTI Act Works Constitutional basis: the right to know is part of freedom of speech and expression under Article 19(1)(a). The Supreme Court recognised this in State of U.P. v. Raj Narain (1975) and S.P. Gupta v. Union of India (1981). The RTI Act puts this right into statute. Key definitions: “Information” is defined in Section 2(f) and “public authority” in Section 2(h). Every public authority must designate Public Information Officers (PIOs) under Section 5. Section 4 (proactive disclosure): public authorities must publish information on their own, without waiting for requests. Section 4(1)(b) lists 16 specific categories, plus a residual clause for other prescribed information (clauses i–xvii). The categories include functions and duties, officials’ contact details, budgets and expenditure, subsidy programmes and concessions granted. Sections 6 and 7 (requests): a citizen files an application, and the PIO must reply within 30 days, or within 48 hours where the life or liberty of a person is involved. Exemptions: Section 8 lists the grounds for refusing information. Section 24, read with the Second Schedule, excludes listed intelligence and security organisations, except for information on allegations of corruption and human-rights violations. Appeals and penalties: an applicant can file a first appeal within the public authority and a second appeal to the Central or State Information Commission (Section 19). Under Section 20, a PIO can be fined ₹250 a day, up to ₹25,000. The Commissions: the Central Information Commission is set up under Section 12 and State Information Commissions under Section 15. Under Section 25, each Commission prepares an annual report, which is laid before the legislature. Figure 3 — Two channels of access under the RTI Act CHANNEL 1 — PROACTIVE (SUO MOTU) DISCLOSURE · SECTION 4Public Authoritypublishes Sec 4(1)(b) items+ DoPT additional categoriesWebsite / recordsopen to all, no applicationCitizeninformed directlyVerified annually by a third-party transparency audit, with the report shared with the CICCHANNEL 2 — REQUEST AND APPEAL · SECTIONS 6, 7, 19Citizen filesrequest (S.6)fee ₹10 (Centre)PIO replies (S.7)30 days; 48 hours iflife or liberty involvedFirst appealsenior officer withinthe same authoritySecond appealCIC / SICwithin 90 daysEvery item missing from Channel 1 pushes a citizen into Channel 2,which is where request volumes and Commission backlogs accumulate Section 4 is meant to be the main channel, so that citizens rarely need to file a request. When it is weak, the burden shifts to PIOs, appellate authorities and the Commissions. ◈ Static Background — The Making of the Transparency Regime 1766: Sweden enacted the world’s first freedom-of-information law, as part of its Freedom of the Press Act. 1990s: the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) in Rajasthan held jan sunwais (public hearings) on records of local public works. The National Campaign for People’s Right to Information (NCPRI) was formed in 1996. 1997–2003: several States passed their own RTI laws first, beginning with Tamil Nadu and Goa in 1997. 2002: Parliament passed the Freedom of Information Act, but it was never brought into force. 2005: the RTI Act received assent on 15 June 2005 and came fully into force on 12 October 2005. 2006: the Second Administrative Reforms Commission devoted its First Report to the RTI Act, describing it as the “master key to good governance”. 2013: DoPT guidelines added categories for proactive disclosure (such as procurement, PPPs, transfer policy and RTI applications received). They also introduced an annual third-party transparency audit. 2019: the RTI (Amendment) Act allowed the Centre to prescribe the tenure, salary and service conditions of Information Commissioners. These had earlier been fixed in the Act itself, at parity with the Election Commission. 2019 (judiciary): in Anjali Bhardwaj v. Union of India, the Supreme Court directed timely and transparent appointments to Information Commissions. In CPIO, Supreme Court v. Subhash Chandra Agarwal, it held that the office of the CJI is a public authority under the Act. 2023: Section 44(3) of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act amended Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act, widening the personal-information exemption. The change removed the earlier public-interest override for such information. What the Data Analysis Found 2,303 Public authorities registered with CIC 62.7% Submitted transparency audits, 2024-25 33 / 94 Department sites with 2024-25 audit ~23 lakh RTI requests handled, 2024-25 Audit submission: according to the CIC Annual Report 2024-25, about 1,443 of the 2,303 registered public authorities (62.7%) submitted third-party transparency audit reports. About 37% did not submit any. Audit quality: more than half of the reports submitted were graded C or below, meaning a score of 80% or less. Grade E means a score below 60%. Improving trend: the number of authorities submitting audits roughly doubled, from 754 (2020-21) to about 1,443 (2024-25). Website check: the newspaper verified the websites of the 94 departments under which these authorities fall. Only 33 carried the 2024-25 audit report. 56 (nearly three-fifths) had largely complied with Section 4, with information for 2025-26. 26 lacked the mandated information. The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment site had none. Request volume: about 23 lakh RTI requests were handled in 2024-25. About 5.1 lakh (22%) of these were carried over from the previous year. Both new requests and pending requests have risen steadily since 2007-08. Figure 4 — Audit compliance (Chart 1) and RTI request load (Chart 2) Chart 1: audit submission is rising, but more than a third of authorities still do not file. Chart 2: the total RTI load has grown steadily. Per the newspaper’s note, about 5.1 lakh of the roughly 23 lakh requests in 2024-25 were carried over. Image courtesy The Hindu, 12 October 2026; reproduced with credit for educational use. Figure 5 — How 94 Union department websites fare on proactive disclosure A. Section 4 disclosures on 94 department websites56 — largely compliant, 2025-26 data~1226 — not availableminimal or datedThe middle segment is derived as the remainder (94 − 56 − 26) and is not stated directly in the article.B. Transparency audit report for 2024-25 uploaded on the website33 — yes (35%)61 — no current report (65%)Each bar shows all 94 departments. Source data: The Hindu’s independent verification, reported 12 October 2026. Only about one in three departments puts its latest audit on its website. More than a quarter do not publish the information that Section 4 makes mandatory. Why Section 4 Matters The Act’s own design: Section 4(2) asks public authorities to disclose enough on their own that the public has minimal need to file requests. Strong proactive disclosure is the Act’s intended first line of access. Lower pendency: each item published proactively reduces the number of requests, first appeals and second appeals, and so eases the backlog at the Commissions. Equal access: applying for information takes time, literacy and some confidence in dealing with officials. Published information is equally available to everyone. Accountability: published procurement, budget and beneficiary data enables social audit, deters corruption and supports evidence-based scrutiny. Global commitment: the measure supports SDG Target 16.10, which concerns public access to information. Implementation Gaps — An Analytical View No penalty for non-disclosure: the Section 20 penalties apply to how PIOs handle requests, not to failures to disclose under Section 4. The Commission may recommend corrective steps under Section 25(5). While deciding an appeal, it may direct a public authority to publish categories of information under Section 19(8). There is no routine mechanism to enforce compliance with Section 4. Audits as box-ticking: self-arranged third-party audits, with more than half graded C or below and many not published, risk becoming a formality rather than a real check. Outdated information: some websites hold old or partial information. Section 4 requires regular updates, so stale data defeats its purpose. Format problems: information is often posted as scanned PDFs instead of machine-readable data. This falls short of the National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (2012) and the open-data approach behind data.gov.in. Institutional weakness: vacancies in the Commissions, delayed appointments and the dilution of Commissioners’ independence through the 2019 amendment all weaken enforcement of the Act. A narrower Act: the DPDP Act’s change to Section 8(1)(j) widens the scope for refusing information. This makes proactive disclosure of non-personal public data even more important. Way Forward Give Section 4 compliance legal force through rules, with Commission oversight and departmental accountability for failures to disclose. Have the CIC empanel independent auditors, publish grade-wise rankings of public authorities, and require audit reports on department websites. Build a standard, machine-readable disclosure template on a single national portal, with automatic date-stamps so that stale data is visible. Use RTI request patterns to decide what to publish: information that is requested often should be published by default. Fill Commission vacancies on time, as the Anjali Bhardwaj directions require, and publish pendency data quarterly. ◆ Prelims Pointers Section 4 covers proactive disclosure. Section 8 covers exemptions. Section 24 covers excluded organisations. Section 25 covers the Commissions’ annual reports. The Chief Information Commissioner is appointed by the President on the recommendation of a committee of three: the Prime Minister; the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha; a Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the Prime Minister. The CIC is a statutory body, not a constitutional one. It has no suo motu power to penalise a public authority for Section 4 lapses. The time limit for a second appeal to the CIC or a SIC is 90 days. ✎ Mains Practice Question “Proactive disclosure under Section 4 was meant to be the backbone of the RTI regime, yet it remains its weakest link.” Examine this statement in the light of recent compliance data, and suggest measures to strengthen suo motu disclosure. 15 marks · 250 words

In-Depth News Analysis8 Items Core TopicImportantConcise Polity & GovernanceGS Paper II 01UAPA: Bail, Vague Definitions & Trial Delays02Kulsi Hydropower Project & the Assam–Meghalaya Border Science & TechnologyGS Paper III 03Quantum-Safe Banking & Post-Quantum Cryptography04World’s First Working Nuclear Clocks (Thorium-229) Environment & EcologyGS Paper III 05Indonesia’s Wildfires, Haze & Orangutans06Heat-Driven Sex Reversal & Amphibian Extinction Risk Geography & Places in NewsGS Paper I 07Twin Earthquakes in Panama — Places in News08Bay of Kotor: Fjord vs Ria — Places in News Polity & GovernanceGeneral Studies Paper II 01 UAPA and Civil Liberties: The Debate Over Bail, Vague Definitions and Years of Pre-Trial Detention Core TopicGS-II · Fundamental Rights (Arts 19, 21, 22), Judiciary, Criminal JusticeGS-III · Internal Security — Anti-Terror LawsPrelims + MainsThe Hindu · Letter & Spirit (Gautam Bhatia) 12 October marked the second death anniversary of a former Delhi University professor. He had spent about a decade in prison under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) before the Bombay High Court acquitted him in 2024, and he died soon after his release. A legal commentary uses the anniversary to argue that the UAPA needs urgent reform. The central issue is how India balances national security against personal liberty. ◈ Basics First — What the UAPA Does Nature: the UAPA is India’s main anti-terror and anti-secession law. It was enacted in 1967 to act against unlawful associations, and terrorism chapters were added in 2004. “Unlawful activity” (Section 2(1)(o)) covers acts or words that support secession or question India’s sovereignty and territorial integrity. A “terrorist act” is defined in Section 15. Banning an association: the Centre can declare an association unlawful under Section 3. The ban must be confirmed by a UAPA Tribunal headed by a High Court judge. Lists of terrorist entities: terrorist organisations are listed in the First Schedule. Since 2019, individuals can also be designated as terrorists, in the Fourth Schedule. Main offences: membership of an unlawful association (Section 10); terrorist acts (Section 16); conspiracy (Section 18); membership of a terrorist organisation (Section 38); support to a terrorist organisation (Section 39). Investigation and sanction: cases are investigated by the National Investigation Agency (NIA) or State police. Prosecution needs government sanction under Section 45, given after review by an independent authority. ◈ Constitutional Anchor Article 19(2): allows reasonable restrictions on free speech. The 16th Amendment (1963) added “sovereignty and integrity of India” as a ground, and this is the constitutional basis for the UAPA. Article 21: after Maneka Gandhi (1978), any procedure that deprives a person of liberty must be just, fair and reasonable. Hussainara Khatoon (1979) held that a speedy trial is part of Article 21. Article 22: provides safeguards on arrest and detention. Presumption of innocence: although it is not written into the Constitution, courts treat it as a basic principle of criminal law. Static Background — Lineage of India’s Anti-Terror Laws TADA (Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act, 1985/1987) was allowed to lapse in 1995 after widespread complaints of misuse. In Kartar Singh v. State of Punjab (1994), the Supreme Court had upheld the law while warning against its abuse. POTA (Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002) was upheld in PUCL v. Union of India (2003) and repealed in 2004. Its core terror provisions were then moved into the UAPA, a permanent statute that, unlike TADA and POTA, has no sunset clause. 2008: after the Mumbai attacks, an amendment added Section 43D, with tighter bail and longer custody, and the NIA Act was passed. 2012: threats to “economic security” were brought within the definition of terrorism. 2019: an amendment allowed the Centre to designate individuals as terrorists. It also let the NIA seize property connected with terrorism. International obligations: UN Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001) and FATF standards require States to criminalise terror financing. Figure 1 — Six decades of special security legislation 196316th Amendment:“sovereignty andintegrity” in 19(2)1967UAPA enacted —unlawful associations1985 / 87TADA; allowedto lapse in 19952002POTA; repealedin 20042004Terror offencesmoved into UAPA2008S.43D bail bar,180-day custody;NIA Act2012“Economicsecurity” added2019Individuals can bedesignated“terrorists” The temporary laws TADA and POTA were repealed or allowed to lapse, but their core features now sit within the permanent UAPA. The Argument for Reform (as made in the article) Vague definitions: terms such as “membership” are not defined. At their widest, they can reach slogans or the mere possession of literature. Bail is nearly impossible: under Section 43D(5), a court must refuse bail if the accusation appears “prima facie true” on the police record. Undertrials therefore spend years in jail before trial. Long delays: the article cites the Bhima Koregaon case (2018), in which charges had still not been framed eight years later. It also cites the 2020 north-east Delhi riots conspiracy case, in which some accused have been in jail for more than six years without trial. Courts have reversed attempts to narrow the law: Arup Bhuyan (2011) limited “membership” to active membership involving incitement to violence. A larger Bench overruled it in 2023. A Delhi High Court bail ruling in 2021 read the terrorism clauses narrowly. The Supreme Court directed that it should not be treated as precedent. Inconsistent bail decisions: some judges closely scrutinise chargesheets, while others accept the police version. Courts also differ on how much delay justifies bail. Outcomes therefore depend heavily on which judge hears the case. Figure 2 — How UAPA bail differs from ordinary criminal procedure ArrestPolice custody up to30 days (ordinarylaw: 15 days)Chargesheetdue in 90 days,extendable to 180(ordinary: 60/90)Bail test — Section 43D(5)Court must refuse bail if, on the case diary orchargesheet, the accusation appears prima facietrue — the reverse of “bail is the rule”NIA v. Watali (2019)At the bail stage, courtsaccept the prosecution casebroadly; no detailedweighing of evidenceK.A. Najeeb(2021)Art. 21 relieffor long trialdelayOrdinary criminal law (contrast)“Bail is the rule, jail the exception”Default bail if chargesheet not filed in time(BNSS 2023, earlier CrPC S.167) Section 43D reverses the ordinary rule that bail is the norm. The Najeeb principle, based on Article 21, is the main way out when a trial is long delayed. ▤ Key Judgments to Know NIA v. Zahoor Ahmad Shah Watali (2019): at the bail stage under the UAPA, courts should examine the prosecution case only broadly and should not weigh the evidence in detail. Union of India v. K.A. Najeeb (2021): constitutional courts may grant bail on Article 21 grounds where incarceration is long and the trial unlikely to end soon, despite Section 43D(5). Vernon Gonsalves v. State of Maharashtra (2023): merely possessing literature does not by itself make out a UAPA offence. Gurwinder Singh (Feb 2024) and Jalaluddin Khan (Aug 2024): both were Supreme Court Benches. The first stressed the strict bail bar, while the second held that “bail is the rule” applies even under the UAPA. Together they show the inconsistency the article criticises. Conviction rate: Union Home Ministry data placed in Parliament (2021) showed that only about 2% of people arrested under the UAPA between 2016 and 2019 were convicted. The Other Side — Why a Stringent Law Is Defended Nature of terrorism: terror networks are covert, cross-border and increasingly online. Proving such conspiracies needs longer investigation than ordinary crime. Risks of release on bail: accused persons may intimidate witnesses, abscond or re-offend. Constitutional validity: the Supreme Court has upheld special anti-terror laws, from Kartar Singh to PUCL, as valid exercises of State power. Built-in safeguards: the law has independent sanction review, tribunal confirmation of bans and special courts. On this view, the problem lies in implementation, not in the design of the law. Way Forward Write the Najeeb principle into the statute, so that bail becomes presumptive after a fixed period of undertrial custody. Define “membership”, “support” and “conspiracy” precisely, keeping a requirement of intent and nexus with violence. Set time limits for trials in special courts, provide enough judges, and require quarterly disclosure of pending UAPA cases. Provide compensation for wrongful prosecution, as the Law Commission’s 277th Report (2018) recommended. Strengthen the sanction review so that it acts as a real filter, not a formality. ✎ Mains Practice Question “Under special security laws, the process itself has become the punishment.” Critically examine this statement with reference to the bail provisions of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, and suggest reforms that reconcile national security with Article 21. 15 marks · 250 words 02 Kulsi Hydropower Project: Border Communities of Assam and Meghalaya Unite in Opposition ImportantGS-II · Federalism — Inter-State Disputes; Sixth ScheduleGS-III · Infrastructure (Hydropower), EIA, BiodiversityPrelims + MainsThe Hindu · Guwahati In June 2025, the governments of Assam and Meghalaya jointly proposed a 55 MW hydropower-cum-irrigation project on the Kulsi river, a habitat of the endangered Gangetic river dolphin. More than 2,000 people from the Bodo, Garo, Khasi and Rabha communities have now rallied against it, on a border that the two States themselves have disputed for decades. ◈ Basics First — River, Site and Stakeholders The river: the Kulsi is a south-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra. According to the report, it is formed by the confluence of the Dron, Shree and Dilma rivers. The site: the dam is proposed at this confluence, on the Assam–Meghalaya border about 80 km south-west of Guwahati. The rally was held at Ukiam, near the dam site. Location on the disputed border: Ukiam lies roughly midway between Langpih and Borduar, two of the border sectors still in dispute between the States. Who is opposing: the Assam–Meghalaya Joint Protection Committee, formed in 2025, is coordinating the opposition. Three traditional Khasi chiefs (Syiems) have said publicly that they will not give the no-objection certificates that land-based projects in Meghalaya require. ◈ Static Background — Why the Boundary Is Disputed Formation of Meghalaya: Meghalaya was carved out of Assam, first as an autonomous State within Assam in 1970, and then as a full State on 21 January 1972 under the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971. Areas of difference: the two States read the boundary differently, which left 12 “areas of difference”. 2022 MoU: a March 2022 agreement settled 6 of the 12 areas in a first phase. Still unresolved: the other six areas, including Langpih and Borduar, are still being negotiated. Sixth Schedule: under Articles 244(2) and 275(1), Meghalaya has three Autonomous District Councils: Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills and Garo Hills. Under Paragraph 3, these councils can make laws on land, forests (other than reserved forests), water use for agriculture and the appointment of chiefs. Syiems and Himas: a Syiem heads a Hima, a traditional Khasi polity. Their consent carries real weight in decisions about land. ▤ Species Spotlight — Gangetic River Dolphin Identity: scientific name Platanista gangetica. It is India’s National Aquatic Animal (declared in 2009) and Assam’s State Aquatic Animal. Protection status: IUCN: Endangered; Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I; CITES: Appendix I. Biology: it is functionally blind and navigates by echolocation. Because it must surface to breathe, it is also known as the “susu”. Conservation programmes: Project Dolphin was announced in 2020; the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary in Bihar was set up in 1991; National Dolphin Day is observed on 5 October. Why dams harm it: dams split up dolphin populations, reduce dry-season flows and change the river channel. The Kulsi population is small and already isolated. The Case For and Against the Project For: the project would provide irrigation and clean power to an under-served border region. Joint planning could also become a confidence-building step between the two States. Against — consent: on the Meghalaya side, the project has no consent from customary institutions, and it would affect forest rights on the Assam side. Against — ecology: it would damage dolphin habitat and harm fisheries downstream. Against — the border: communities fear the project could settle the disputed boundary through construction, before any negotiated agreement. Regulatory threshold: under the EIA Notification, 2006, a hydro project of 50 MW or more is Category A. It therefore needs appraisal by the Union Environment Ministry’s expert committee and a public hearing. Way Forward Seek free, prior and informed consent of the affected communities, following the spirit of the Niyamgiri (2013) judgment and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007). Carry out a cumulative basin-level impact study and set ecological flow requirements suited to dolphins. Settle the boundary before allocating land for the project. ✎ Mains Practice Question Development projects in the North-East often sit at the intersection of inter-State boundary disputes, customary tribal institutions and fragile ecosystems. Discuss with reference to the proposed Kulsi hydropower project. 10 marks · 150 words Science & TechnologyGeneral Studies Paper III 03 From Quantum-Enhanced to Quantum-Safe: Why Banks Must Prepare for “Q-Day” Now Core TopicGS-III · S&T — Quantum Technology; Basics of Cyber Security; Banking RegulationPrelims + MainsThe Indian Express · Mumbai / New Delhi Financial regulators have recently tightened cyber-resilience rules. The RBI issued a cybersecurity and technology-resilience framework for commercial banks in July 2026. SEBI introduced an IT Resilience Index for market infrastructure institutions in August 2026. The next threat is of a different kind. Quantum computers could break the mathematics on which today’s encryption rests. ◈ Basics First — Qubits and Cryptography Bit vs qubit: a classical bit is either 0 or 1. A qubit can be in a superposition of both states, and qubits can be entangled with one another. How quantum algorithms work: they use interference to raise the probability of correct answers and lower the probability of wrong ones. This gives an advantage only for certain kinds of problems, not for all computing. Decoherence: qubits are fragile and lose their quantum state easily. Large-scale, error-corrected machines are therefore still being developed. Symmetric cryptography (for example, AES) uses one shared key. It is fast and used to encrypt bulk data. Public-key (asymmetric) cryptography (RSA from 1977, Diffie–Hellman from 1976, and elliptic-curve methods) uses a public/private key pair. It is used for key exchange, digital signatures and certificates. Its security rests on problems that are hard for classical computers, such as factoring large numbers and computing discrete logarithms. ◈ Static Background — From Shor to NIST Standards 1994: Shor’s algorithm showed that a large enough quantum computer could factor numbers and solve discrete logarithms efficiently, which would break RSA and elliptic-curve cryptography. 1996: Grover’s algorithm gives a quadratic speed-up in searching. This effectively halves the strength of symmetric keys, so AES-256 is still considered adequate. 1984: the BB84 protocol laid the basis of Quantum Key Distribution (QKD). QKD secures key exchange using the laws of physics, not mathematical hardness. 2016–2024: the US NIST ran a global competition for post-quantum cryptography (PQC). In August 2024 it published FIPS 203 (ML-KEM), FIPS 204 (ML-DSA) and FIPS 205 (SLH-DSA). In 2025, it selected HQC as a backup key-establishment scheme. India’s National Quantum Mission: approved in April 2023, it has an outlay of ₹6,003.65 crore for 2023-24 to 2030-31, with the Department of Science & Technology as nodal department. It has four thematic hubs: computing, communication, sensing & metrology, and materials & devices. Financial-sector cyber regulation: CERT-In is the national cyber-incident agency under Section 70B of the IT Act, 2000. CSIRT-Fin is the incident-response team for the financial sector. The RBI issued a Master Direction on IT Governance in 2023. SEBI issued its Cybersecurity and Cyber Resilience Framework (CSCRF) in 2024. Figure 3 — What quantum computing breaks, and what replaces it TODAY’S CRYPTOGRAPHYQUANTUM ATTACKSAFE PATHPublic-key: RSA, ECC, DHkey exchange, digital signatures,certificates (HTTPS, UPI, SWIFT)Shor’s algorithm (1994)solves factoring and discretelogs → BROKENReplace with PQCNIST 2024: ML-KEM (FIPS 203),ML-DSA (204), SLH-DSA (205)Symmetric: AESbulk data encryption,stored recordsGrover’s algorithm (1996)quadratic speed-up on search;halves key strength → WEAKENEDUse longer keysAES-256 stays adequate;longer hash outputsHarvest Now, Decrypt Later (HNDL)Data protected only by public-key exchange can be copied today and opened once acryptographically relevant quantum computer (CRQC) exists — so long-lived data is at risk now Public-key cryptography is the weakest point. Symmetric encryption only needs longer keys, but key exchange and signatures need new algorithms. The Threat for Banks Harvest Now, Decrypt Later (HNDL): an attacker can copy encrypted data today and decrypt it once a cryptographically relevant quantum computer (CRQC) exists. The Digital Threat Report 2025-26 (by CERT-In, CSIRT-Fin and SISA) says that HNDL strategies are already active, even though the wider quantum threat has not fully arrived. “Quantum deadline”: some industry voices put it at 2029–30. There is, however, no agreed date for when a CRQC will exist. A complex technology base: banks run legacy core systems, cloud services, third-party vendors, payment platforms and hardware security modules. Each of these contains cryptography that would need to be found and replaced. Crypto-agility: the ability to swap algorithms and protocols without rebuilding systems. It is now treated as a core resilience capability. Figure 4 — Mosca’s inequality: why migration cannot wait for Q-Day Mosca’s inequality — when to start migratingData needsprotectionx = shelf-life of secrecyy = time to migrateThreatarrivesz = time until a CRQC existsEXPOSEDIf x + y > z, data encrypted today will be readable before it stops matteringBank records, KYC data and loan files often need secrecy for decades, so x alone can exceed z Migration has to start before a quantum computer exists. How early depends on how long the data must stay secret and how long the migration itself takes. ▤ A Migration Roadmap for the Financial Sector Inventory: build a cryptographic bill of materials, a list of where each algorithm and key is used. Prioritise: start with long-lived, high-value data such as KYC records, loan files and inter-bank messages. Hybrid deployment: during the transition, use classical and PQC methods together. Vendors: write PQC readiness into vendor contracts. Test the effect on performance, because PQC keys and signatures are larger. Regulators: set timelines, run sector-wide testing and issue Indian standards aligned with global ones. Challenges Uncertain timing: because no one knows when a CRQC will arrive, institutions may either delay or overspend. Smaller lenders: co-operative banks, NBFCs and fintechs lack the budgets and skills for migration. Interdependence: UPI, card networks and SWIFT links mean the system is only as secure as its weakest link. Global standards: standards are still evolving, and India has a stake in sovereign standards and indigenous capability under the NQM. ✎ Mains Practice Question “The quantum threat to cryptography is a present danger, not a future one.” Explain this statement with reference to ‘Harvest Now, Decrypt Later’ attacks, and suggest how India’s financial sector should prepare its transition to post-quantum cryptography. 15 marks · 250 words 04 World’s First Working Nuclear Clocks: Thorium-229 and the Next Leap in Timekeeping ImportantGS-III · S&T — Developments and Applications; Space (Navigation)Prelims + MainsThe Hindu · Science Two papers in Nature report the world’s first working nuclear clocks. One comes from teams in China (Beijing and Shanghai) and the other from teams in Austria and Germany. Both clocks keep time using the nucleus of thorium-229 rather than an atom’s electrons. ◈ Basics First — How Any Clock Keeps Time Parts of a clock: every clock has an oscillator that ticks, a counter, and a reference that keeps the ticks steady. Examples are a pendulum, a quartz crystal, or a quantum transition in an atom. The SI second: since 1967, the second has been defined as 9,192,631,770 oscillations of the radiation from a transition in caesium-133. Optical atomic clocks: clocks based on ytterbium or strontium are far more precise. A ytterbium clock loses about one second in 23 billion years. The second is expected to be redefined using such clocks. Why the nucleus helps: in an atomic clock, the electrons are disturbed by electric and magnetic fields and by temperature. The nucleus is shielded by the electron cloud. Why thorium-229: exciting a nucleus usually needs X-rays or gamma rays, which are hard to control. Thorium-229 has an unusually low-energy nuclear transition (about 8.4 eV) that an ultraviolet laser can trigger. Figure 5 — How a thorium-229 nuclear clock stays on time UV laseroscillator — itsfrequency is the “tick”Thorium-229 nucleiin calcium fluoride crystal(~8.4 eV nuclear transition)Detectorcounts how many nucleiget excitedFeedback correctionfewer excitations = laser drifted → retuneThe nucleus sits inside the electron cloud, so it is less disturbed by stray fields than the electrons an atomic clock uses The laser’s frequency is locked to the nuclear transition. Whenever it drifts, fewer nuclei are excited, and a computer retunes the laser. What the Two Teams Did China (Beijing and Shanghai): the team embedded thorium-229 in calcium fluoride crystals. It fired an ultraviolet laser at them, with a feedback loop constantly correcting the laser. Austria and Germany: the team built a thorium-229 clock and ran it alongside a ytterbium atomic clock to search for ultralight dark matter. Some theories predict that such dark matter would make fundamental constants fluctuate slightly. Because the two clocks would respond differently, any change in their relative tick rates would be a signal. No signal was found. Why the clock is so sensitive: the transition energy is low because the strong nuclear force and the electromagnetic force nearly cancel each other in this nucleus. This makes the clock highly sensitive to tiny changes in either force. Current status: the prototypes are not yet as precise as the best atomic clocks, but they show the design works. Better laser power and crystal quality are expected to let them overtake atomic clocks. ◆ Prelims Pointers & India Link Thorium-229 vs thorium-232: thorium-229 is produced by the decay of uranium-233 and has a half-life of about 7,900 years. India’s large thorium reserves, in monazite sands, are thorium-232. Thorium-232 is the fuel for Stage III of India’s three-stage nuclear programme. Dark matter makes up roughly 27% of the universe’s mass-energy, against about 5% for ordinary matter. NavIC: India’s regional navigation satellites depend on atomic clocks. The failure of imported rubidium clocks on IRNSS-1A led to indigenous clock development. NVS-01 (2023) was the first to carry an indigenous atomic clock. Uses of more precise clocks: navigation where GNSS signals are unavailable; 5G and power-grid synchronisation; time-stamping of financial transactions; relativistic geodesy, which measures height differences from clock rates. ✎ Mains Practice Question What are nuclear clocks, and how do they differ from atomic clocks? Discuss their potential applications in navigation, fundamental physics and strategic sectors, with reference to India’s needs. 10 marks · 150 words Environment & EcologyGeneral Studies Paper III 05 Indonesia’s Worst Fires in 11 Years: Peatlands, Transboundary Haze and the Race to Save Orangutans ImportantGS-III · Conservation, Disaster Management, PollutionGS-I · Places in News · Species in NewsPrelims + MainsThe Indian Express · Reuters / AP, Jakarta Indonesia is facing its most intense wildfires in 11 years on Sumatra and Borneo, made worse by El Niño. Conservation teams are moving critically endangered orangutans out of burning habitat, and the haze has spread across South-East Asia. ◈ Basics First — Places, Species and Processes Borneo: the world’s third-largest island, shared by three countries: Indonesia — its part is called Kalimantan; Malaysia — the States of Sabah and Sarawak; Brunei. Sumatra lies to its west, across the Strait of Malacca from peninsular Malaysia. Orangutans are the only great apes of Asia. There are three species, all Critically Endangered (IUCN) and listed in CITES Appendix I: Bornean (Pongo pygmaeus); Sumatran (P. abelii); Tapanuli (P. tapanuliensis), described in 2017. Indonesia has all three. Malaysia has only the Bornean species. Peatland fires: drained tropical peat burns below the surface and smoulders for weeks. It releases large amounts of carbon and smoke and is very hard to put out. El Niño: unusual warming of the central and eastern Pacific weakens the Walker circulation. This brings drought to Indonesia and Australia, and often a weaker Indian monsoon. A positive Indian Ocean Dipole also dries out Indonesia. Figure 6 — Indonesia: Sumatra and Borneo (Kalimantan), the fire-hit islands The fires are concentrated in Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) and Sumatra. The haze drifts north-west towards Singapore and Malaysia. Map courtesy BBC News; reproduced with credit for educational use. ▤ The Numbers Area burned: official data show over 2 lakh hectares burned between January and July. The satellite-based Nusantara Atlas estimates about 8.96 lakh hectares by the end of August. Orangutan rescues: since August, 46 orangutans have been rescued in West Kalimantan. Eight of them, three mother–infant pairs and two adolescent males, were moved to the Batu Nyambu protected forest. Other wildlife: over 270 wild animals in Kalimantan have been rescued, rehabilitated or guided to safer habitat. Health: the haze has been linked to about 1.75 lakh cases of respiratory illness in Indonesia. Regional spread: schools were closed in Malaysia, a state of emergency was declared in Sarawak, and smoke has reached Singapore and the Philippines. Outlook: the government has warned the fires may continue until November. Static Background — A Recurring Regional Crisis Past crises: the 1997–98 haze was a turning point, and in 2015 fires burned about 2.6 million hectares. The present season is the worst since then. ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution: signed in 2002, it came into force in 2003. Indonesia ratified it last, in 2014. Singapore passed its own Transboundary Haze Pollution Act in 2014. Underlying drivers: the main causes are draining peat and clearing land by fire for oil palm and pulpwood plantations. One of the orangutans in this year’s rescues died after being found on a palm-oil plantation. India Link and Why It Matters Palm oil: India is among the world’s largest importers of edible oil. Palm oil is the largest share of these imports and comes mainly from Indonesia and Malaysia. This links Indian demand to how plantations are run in South-East Asia. Domestic substitution: the National Mission on Edible Oils – Oil Palm (2021) aims to replace imports with domestic production. Expanding oil palm in the North-East and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands must avoid repeating the same deforestation problems. Climate: peat fires are among the largest single sources of carbon emissions in some years. They undercut climate commitments under the Paris Agreement. ✎ Mains Practice Question Recurrent peatland fires in South-East Asia are as much a governance failure as a climatic event. Examine with reference to the links between El Niño, plantation agriculture and transboundary haze. 10 marks · 150 words 06 Heat-Driven Sex Reversal in Frogs: How a Warming Planet Can Push Amphibians Towards Extinction ImportantGS-III · Biodiversity, Climate Change Impacts, ConservationPrelims + MainsThe Hindu · Science A study of agile frogs in Hungary, published in Science Advances, finds that heat-induced sex-reversed males father fewer offspring. Their offspring are also more vulnerable to heat and disease. Together, these effects could bring populations to extinction earlier as the climate warms. ◈ Basics First — How Sex Is Determined Genotypic sex determination (GSD): sex chromosomes decide sex. XX/XY in mammals and agile frogs, where XY is male; ZW/ZZ in birds and many reptiles, where ZW is female. Temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD): the incubation temperature decides sex, as in crocodilians and most turtles. In sea turtles, warmer nests produce more females, and some populations are now heavily female. Sex reversal: genetic sex and physical sex do not match. In bearded dragons, heat turns genetic males into functional females. In agile frogs, heat turns genetic females into fertile males. Sequential hermaphroditism is a different, natural life-history strategy found in fish: protandry, male to female, as in clownfish; protogyny, female to male, as in wrasses and groupers. Amphibians in crisis: about 40% of amphibian species are threatened, the highest share of any vertebrate group (Global Amphibian Assessment, 2023). The main threats are habitat loss, the chytrid fungus, ranavirus and climate change. Figure 7 — The agile frog (Rana dalmatina) The agile frog is a European brown frog that breeds in early-spring ponds. Its tadpoles are exposed to heatwaves in shallow water. Photograph: Petar Milošević (CC BY-SA), as published in The Hindu; reproduced with credit for educational use. What the Study Found Mating experiments: sex-reversed (XX) males could mate and fertilise eggs. However, about one-third of females paired with them laid only part of their eggs, a “split clutch” strategy that saves eggs for a better mate. In the wild: across 16 populations, sex-reversed males made up about 20% of males but fathered only about 4% of egg clutches. Offspring: 61% of the offspring of sex-reversed males themselves sex-reversed, against 17% for offspring of normal males. Under an artificial heatwave, these tadpoles also carried higher ranavirus loads. Population models: some populations could disappear within 60–70 years. When ranavirus deaths were included, decline began about 10 years earlier and extinction came about 9.5 years sooner. Figure 8 — The reproductive penalty of sex reversal A. Share in wild populations vs share of clutches siredShare of males~20%Share of egg clutches~4%B. Offspring that themselves sex-reverse (lab-reared tadpoles)Fathered by sex-reversed males61%Fathered by sex-concordant males17%Bars drawn to scale within each panel. Data as reported from the study (Science Advances, 3 September 2026). Sex-reversed males are common in wild populations but father few offspring. The offspring they do produce are more likely to sex-reverse, so the effect builds up across generations. Significance for Conservation A hidden cost of warming: climate change can affect reproduction and sex ratios, not only temperature tolerance. This matters most for ectotherms, the cold-blooded animals whose body temperature follows their surroundings. Small populations at greatest risk: losing even a few breeding females can make a small population collapse. What managers can do: protect cool microhabitats such as shaded and deeper ponds; monitor genetic sex as well as visible sex; include disease in climate-risk assessments. India’s relevance: the Western Ghats and the North-East are amphibian hotspots with high endemism. Many species there live in narrow thermal ranges. ✎ Mains Practice Question Climate change threatens species not only through habitat loss but also by altering their reproductive biology. Discuss with suitable examples, and suggest conservation responses. 10 marks · 150 words Geography & Places in NewsGeneral Studies Paper I 07 Twin Earthquakes of Magnitude 7.7 and 6.6 Strike Panama: The Tectonics of a Young Isthmus ImportantGS-I · Earthquakes, Plate Tectonics, Places in NewsPrelims + MainsThe Indian Express · AP, Panama City Two powerful earthquakes, of magnitude 7.7 and 6.6, struck southern Panama on Friday, 9 October. They collapsed buildings near the epicentre and led to evacuations across the country, and were felt as far away as Colombia. ▤ The Event Epicentre: about 10 km south-west of Pitaloza Arriba in Herrera province, on the Azuero Peninsula. Depth: about 10 km, a shallow earthquake. Magnitude: the US Geological Survey (USGS) first reported magnitude 8, then revised it to 7.6 and finally to 7.7. Aftershocks: more than 45 were recorded, including tremors of magnitude 5.8, 5.5 and 5.2. Damage and casualties: a hotel collapsed in Penonomé. No deaths had been documented as of the first evening. Figure 9 — Epicentres off southern Panama, and Panama’s regional setting Panama is an S-shaped isthmus between Costa Rica and Colombia, with the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific to the south. Both quakes struck on the Pacific side. Upper map courtesy The Indian Express (AP); lower map courtesy BBC News; both reproduced with credit for educational use. ◈ Basics First — Reading an Earthquake Report Focus and epicentre: the focus (hypocentre) is where the rupture begins underground. The epicentre is the point on the surface directly above it. Depth classes: shallow: 0–70 km; intermediate: 70–300 km; deep: 300–700 km. Shallow quakes like this one cause the most surface damage. Magnitude: the moment magnitude scale measures the energy released and is logarithmic. Each whole step means about 10 times the ground motion and about 32 times the energy. So the 7.7 quake released roughly 45 times the energy of the 6.6. Intensity: the (Modified) Mercalli scale measures observed effects at a particular place, so intensity varies from place to place. Static Background — Why Panama Shakes Plate setting: Panama sits on the small Panama microplate (block), surrounded by four larger plates: the Caribbean Plate to the north; the Cocos Plate to the west; the Nazca Plate to the south; the South American Plate to the east. The Panama Fracture Zone: this transform fault between the Cocos and Nazca plates, together with the deformed belts along the coasts, makes southern Panama seismically active. The region is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. A young land bridge: the Isthmus of Panama rose about 3 million years ago, separating the Atlantic from the Pacific. This triggered the Great American Biotic Interchange, the exchange of species between the two Americas, and changed ocean circulation. Panama Canal: it is about 82 km long and opened in 1914; under the Torrijos–Carter Treaties (1977), it was handed over to Panama on 31 December 1999; its locks were expanded in 2016; it depends on the fresh water of Gatun Lake, which is why droughts in 2023–24 forced limits on transits. Darién Gap: this roadless rainforest on the Panama–Colombia border is the only break in the Pan-American Highway. ✎ Mains Practice Question Explain why the Central American isthmus is among the most seismically active regions of the world. How does the depth of focus influence the destructiveness of an earthquake? 10 marks · 150 words 08 Bay of Kotor: Why Europe’s “Southernmost Fjord” Is Actually a Ria ImportantGS-I · Coastal Landforms; Places in News (Montenegro, Balkans)Prelims + MainsThe Indian Express · Travel feature The Bay of Kotor in Montenegro is often marketed as Europe’s southernmost fjord. Geologists classify it differently: it is a ria, a drowned river valley, and no glacier ever shaped it. The distinction is a standard test of coastal landforms. ◈ Basics First — Coasts of Submergence Coasts of submergence form when the sea rises or the land sinks, flooding existing valleys. Coasts of emergence form when the land rises or the sea falls, exposing raised beaches and marine terraces. The main submergent forms are below. Fjord: a U-shaped glacial trough drowned by the sea. It is very deep, has steep walls and a shallow sill at its mouth. Examples: Norway (the Sognefjord, its longest), Chile, New Zealand, Greenland and Canada. Ria: a V-shaped river valley drowned by rising sea level. It becomes deeper and wider towards the sea, and the coast is cut across by the valleys. Examples: Galicia (Spain), south-west Ireland, Cornwall and the Bay of Kotor. Dalmatian (concordant) coast: mountain ridges that run parallel to the coast are partly drowned, leaving long islands parallel to the shore. The type example is Croatia’s Adriatic coast. Fjard: a drowned glacial lowland valley, shallower than a fjord. Examples are found in Sweden and Finland. Prelims trap: Milford Sound in New Zealand is actually a fjord despite being called a “sound”, while Kotor is a ria despite being called a “fjord”. Figure 10 — Fjord vs ria: shape reveals origin FJORD — drowned glacial troughU-shaped, very deepSteep walls · shallow sill at mouth · e.g. Norway, Chile, NZRIA — drowned river valleyV-shapedRiver-cut · deepens seaward · e.g. Galicia, SW Ireland, Kotorsea levelsea level A glacier carves a U and leaves a sill at the mouth. A river cuts a V that deepens towards the sea. Figure 11 — A true glacial fjord, for comparison A Norwegian fjord, showing the steep, ice-carved walls and hanging-valley waterfalls that Kotor does not have. Representative image. Image as supplied; reproduced for educational use. Figure 12 — Locating the Bay of Kotor on the Adriatic The bay lies on Montenegro’s short coastline, about two hours by road south-east of Dubrovnik. Bosnia and Herzegovina reaches the sea only at Neum. Legacy IAS map; base geography Natural Earth (public domain). Places in News — Fact File Bay of Kotor: the sea enters through the narrow Verige Strait, about 300 m wide; Kotor’s walls run for more than 4 km up to the Fortress of St John, about 280 m above the town; the region is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, inscribed in 1979. It was on the List in Danger after the 1979 earthquake and was removed in 2003. Montenegro: the name means “Black Mountain”; it became independent in 2006 after a referendum ended the State Union with Serbia; the capital is Podgorica and the main port is Bar; it joined NATO in 2017, has been an EU candidate since 2010, and uses the euro without being in the eurozone. Montenegro’s neighbours: Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Albania. It also borders Kosovo, whose 2008 declaration of independence India does not recognise. Neum corridor: Bosnia’s only coastline, about 20 km long, splits Croatia’s coast in two. The Pelješac Bridge (2022) now connects the two parts of Croatia without crossing Bosnian territory. Karst: the limestone Dinaric Alps give the region its karst landscape, with sinkholes, poljes and underground drainage. The word “karst” comes from the Kras plateau in Slovenia. ✎ Mains Practice Question Distinguish between fjords, rias and Dalmatian coasts as landforms of coastal submergence, with examples. Why is India’s west coast often described as a coast of submergence? 10 marks · 150 words