Content Flight of self-reliance: Inauguration of 3rd Production Line of LCA Mk1A & 2nd Production Line of HTT-40 at HAL Nashik Flight of self-reliance: Inauguration of 3rd Production Line of LCA Mk1A & 2nd Production Line of HTT-40 at HAL Nashik Why in News ? Raksha Mantri Rajnath Singh inaugurated: 3rd Production Line of Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas Mk1A 2nd Production Line of Hindustan Turbo Trainer (HTT)-40 At HAL Nashik, on 17 October 2025. First LCA Mk1A produced at Nashik was flagged off. Relevance: GS 3 (Defence & Indigenisation): Illustrates India’s progress in self-reliance in defence manufacturing. Connect with initiatives like Aatmanirbhar Bharat, Make in India, and iDEX. GS 2 (Governance & Policy): Public–Private–Academia synergy in high-tech manufacturing. Context Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) — a Navratna Defence PSU, India’s primary aerospace manufacturer. Objective: Boost domestic aircraft production capacity and reduce import dependence under Aatmanirbhar Bharat in Defence. Marks a shift from import-based to indigenous defence ecosystem.   Significance of LCA Mk1A LCA Tejas Mk1A: Upgraded variant of Tejas Mk1, developed by HAL and Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) under DRDO. Key Features: Enhanced radar, electronic warfare, and air-to-air refuelling systems. Incorporates 75% indigenous content (target: 85%). Equipped with GE F404 engine (U.S. origin; Indian co-production to start under ToT). Cost-effective and agile — suited for replacing aging MiG-21s. Production capacity (post-expansion): 24 aircraft/year across 3 lines (Bengaluru + Nashik). Strategic Impact: Strengthens IAF’s light fighter fleet and promotes Make in India for export markets. Significance of HTT-40 HTT-40: Basic turboprop trainer aircraft for IAF pilot training, fully designed and developed by HAL. Role: Replaces imported Pilatus PC-7 MkII trainers. Key Specs: Indigenous engine, avionics, and ejection seat systems. Excellent handling, maintainability, and low life-cycle cost. Production capacity (new line): Estimated 20–24 aircraft/year. Symbolism: First fully indigenous basic trainer in India’s aviation history. Defence Self-Reliance: Data & Achievements Import dependence in 2014: 65–70%. Indigenous production share (2025): ~65%. Defence production value: 2014–15: ₹46,429 crore 2024–25: ₹1.50 lakh crore (record high) Defence exports: 2014–15: < ₹1,000 crore 2024–25: ₹25,000 crore Target (2029): ₹50,000 crore exports; ₹3 lakh crore domestic manufacturing. Reflects India’s growing industrial base, export capability, and technological maturity. Strategic and Technological Context Modern Warfare Relevance: Integration of AI, cyber warfare, drones, and next-gen aircraft. India’s aim: stay ahead of the curve in aerospace innovation. HAL’s expanded role: Beyond Tejas → Next-gen aircraft, unmanned systems, civil aviation. Joint MRO (Maintenance, Repair, Overhaul) facility for civil + military aviation → boosts job creation and skill ecosystem. Digital & Sustainable HAL Nashik: Paperless, green, and fully digitalised → aligns with Digital India & Green Defence. Operational Context – “Operation Sindoor” HAL provided 24×7 maintenance and logistics support during Operation Sindoor (2025), ensuring: IAF operational readiness. Integration of BrahMos missile on Su-30 MKI, used to strike terrorist hideouts. Validates combat reliability of indigenously maintained systems. HAL Nashik Division: Legacy and Capabilities Established: 1964; for MiG-21 license production. Production Record: 900+ aircraft produced. 1,900+ overhauled (MiG-21, MiG-27, Su-30 MKI). BrahMos Integration: Landmark in indigenous weapon-aircraft integration. Employment & Industry Base: ~1,000 jobs created. 40+ MSME partners developed around Nashik. Broader Defence Industrial Policy Context Linked Policy Reforms: Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020 → “Buy (Indian-IDDM)” prioritised. Positive Indigenisation Lists → 500+ items banned for import. Innovation for Defence Excellence (iDEX) → start-up participation. Defence Production & Export Promotion Policy (DPEPP) 2020. SRIJAN Portal → local vendor sourcing. Private Sector Integration: Growing participation of firms like Tata, L&T, Bharat Forge, and MSMEs in HAL’s supply chain. Way Forward HAL’s future roadmap: Accelerate LCA Mk2, AMCA, and CATS Warrior (Unmanned Wingman) projects. Expand civil aircraft manufacturing and export-oriented defence production. Policy needs: Continued R&D investment, private sector integration, and export facilitation. Faster testing & certification ecosystems for indigenous systems. Conclusion Core Message: The inauguration of new LCA Mk1A & HTT-40 production lines marks a decisive leap in India’s defence industrial capability. Transformational Outcome: India evolving from an import-dependent to a design-driven aerospace power. Strategic Symbolism: The “Flight of Self-Reliance” — HAL Nashik embodies Aatmanirbhar Bharat in action.

Content From Deep Tech to Knowledge Power: India’s Path to Strategic Autonomy The Gift of Athena: Building India as a Knowledge Power From Deep Tech to Knowledge Power: India’s Path to Strategic Autonomy Why in News ? India’s deep-tech ambitions — in AI, semiconductors, quantum computing, green tech — cannot be realised through government efforts alone. National leadership emphasises Aatmanirbharta in frontier technologies as a pillar of national security and strategic autonomy. Greater private sector participation, higher R&D spending, and whole-of-nation coordination are critical for success. Relevance : GS Paper 3: Science & Technology, Industrial Policy, R&D, Innovation Systems, Indigenisation. GS Paper 2: Governance, Institutional Reform, Public–Private Partnerships, Policy Incentives. Practice Question : India aims to become a global leader in deep technology and knowledge-based innovation. Critically examine the role of government, private sector, and institutional networks in achieving this vision. Suggest reforms required to bridge the R&D and innovation gap.(250 Words) Understanding Deep Tech Definition: Advanced scientific and engineering innovations with long gestation periods and transformative impact. Examples: AI, Quantum Computing, Semiconductors, Green Hydrogen, Biotechnology, Space Tech, Advanced Materials. Significance: Drives economic competitiveness in Industry 5.0. Underpins national security and strategic autonomy. Enables dual-use innovations for civil and defence applications. India’s Deep-Tech Vision Target Year: 2035 → Among Top 5 global deep-tech powers. Key Initiatives: India Semiconductor Mission (2022): $10B incentives for chip fabs. IndiaAI Mission (2024): ₹10,300 crore for foundational AI ecosystem. Anusandhan National Research Foundation (NRF): ₹50,000 crore for academia–industry research. Deep-Tech Fund of Funds (2025): ₹10,000 crore to support deep-tech startups. Vision: Move from “import and integrate” to “innovate and export”. India’s R&D Investment Gap Indicator India China USA South Korea Japan R&D expenditure (% of GDP) 0.65% 2.4% 3.4% 4.9% 3.3% Annual R&D spend (approx.) $15B $600B+ $1T+ $110B $170B Private sector share in R&D ~30% ~75% ~70% ~80% ~75%   India’s private R&D ≈ $5B, while NVIDIA/Intel spend $7–10B each annually. Gap highlights the need for private sector scaling. Structural Challenges Low Private Sector R&D: Reliance on public labs (CSIR, DRDO, ISRO); corporate risk aversion. Weak Academia–Industry Linkages: Fragmented collaboration; limited tech transfer. Limited Deep-Tech Venture Capital: Deep-tech startups < 1% of India’s 1 lakh+ startups (NASSCOM 2024). Talent Constraints: ~2.5 lakh STEM PhDs/year; few in quantum, AI hardware, chip design. Import Dependence: Solar modules 80%, inverters 60%, battery cells 100%, lithium & cobalt ~70% imports (mostly China). Sectoral Overview Quantum Computing India’s first quantum computer: 25-qubit (developmental). Global benchmark: IBM Kookaburra → 1,536-qubit multi-chip (2025). Significant capacity and commercialisation gap. Artificial Intelligence Vast linguistic datasets, but no global-standard native LLM. Minor efforts (Bhashini, BharatGPT) exist but are limited in scale and efficiency. Semiconductors $10B India Semiconductor Mission launched; no operational commercial fab yet. Proposals: Micron (assembly), Tata (Gujarat fab in progress). Challenges: IP access, advanced lithography dependency. Renewable Energy 50% of installed power capacity (2025) from renewables. Import dependency: solar 80%, battery cells 100%. Critical minerals (lithium, cobalt, nickel) almost entirely imported. Government Role: Successes & Limits Achievements: National missions with large funding pools. Startup incentives: iDEX, Startup India, PLI schemes. Institutions: IN-SPACe, NRF, IndiaAI. Limits: Fiscal constraints limit high-end R&D funding. Public sector research remains bureaucratic, risk-averse. Slow technology diffusion and commercialisation. Case for Private Sector Leadership Global experience: private-led innovation drives breakthroughs (US, China, South Korea, Israel). India needs: Corporate R&D allocation ≥2–3% of revenue (current <0.5%). Deep-tech venture funds and corporate labs. Academia-industry partnerships (IITs, IISc, DRDO, ISRO). Tax incentives and strong IP protection. Policy & Ecosystem Reforms Needed Raise national R&D to 1.5% of GDP by 2030. Triple private sector R&D share via grants and incentives. Swiftly implement Anusandhan NRF to link academia–industry. Establish Deep-Tech Manufacturing Zones with shared labs. Simplify patent and tech licensing systems. Secure critical minerals (lithium, cobalt) via global alliances. Develop 100 new Deep–Tech Centres of Excellence for STEM talent. Global Benchmarks US (DARPA): Government funds high-risk research; private industry commercialises. China: 70% R&D from corporates; guided by 5-year plans. South Korea: Chaebol-public institute collaborations. Israel: Military-industry innovation loop (e.g., Iron Dome). Model: “Public seed – private scale” integrating state vision with corporate execution. Strategic Implications Deep tech defines 21st-century power hierarchy → countries that design and innovate dominate. Dependence on foreign tech undermines: data sovereignty, cybersecurity, defence autonomy, energy resilience. Deep tech is existential for Viksit Bharat 2047, not a luxury. Takeaway Core Thesis: India’s deep-tech revolution cannot rely on government alone; private sector investment and innovation are essential. Economic Reality: $15B vs. $600B (China), $1T (US) → urgent scaling needed. Strategic Imperative: Without private push, India risks being an “also-ran” in global tech. Way Forward: Whole-of-nation effort: Government (policy), Industry (execution), Academia (innovation). The Gift of Athena: Building India as a Knowledge Power Why in News ? The discussion is inspired by Joel Mokyr’s The Gifts of Athena and The Lever of Riches, which explore how knowledge drives economic and technological transformation. India’s quest to become a knowledge power requires understanding the interplay between propositional (how things work) and prescriptive knowledge (how to apply knowledge). This highlights gaps in India’s knowledge systems, particularly integration of science, engineering, and productive application. Relevance : GS 3: Science & Technology, Innovation Systems, R&D, Industrial Policy, Knowledge Economy. GS 2: Governance, Institutional Reforms, Public–Private Partnerships, Policy Incentives. Practice Question : Drawing on the framework of knowledge economies, critically analyse India’s challenges and opportunities in becoming a global knowledge power. Suggest institutional and policy measures to create productive feedback loops between research and industry.(250 Words) Understanding Knowledge Economies Definition: Economies where innovation, knowledge creation, and diffusion are central drivers of productivity, growth, and technological leadership. Types of Knowledge (Mokyr): Propositional Knowledge: Understanding principles, laws of nature, scientific facts. Prescriptive Knowledge: Techniques and methods to apply principles to create inventions, tools, and technologies. Key Takeaway: Necessity alone does not drive innovation; it requires knowledge as a midwife to convert needs into productive inventions. Mokyr’s Thesis on Industrial Revolution Critical Factors for sustained innovation: Accumulation and interaction of propositional and prescriptive knowledge. Elite culture with scientific temperament embedded in institutions, networks, and epistemic norms. Diffusion mechanisms: Institutions, social conditions, and cross-border communication (e.g., trans-European “republic of letters”). Paradoxical conditions: Political fragmentation allowed ideas to circulate freely. Social and institutional conditions spot talent and allow it to flourish. Contrast with India: India historically had political fragmentation and intellectual vibrancy, with widespread dissemination of texts and knowledge networks. Despite this, India did not experience an industrial revolution, highlighting missing links in productive feedback loops between science and application. Lessons for India’s Knowledge Economy Elite Culture Matters: Innovation requires a culture of curiosity, scientific temperament, and openness in leadership and institutions. Individual genius is insufficient; institutional and networked support is critical. Integration of Knowledge Types: India must bridge the gap between scientific discovery (propositional) and industrial/technological application (prescriptive). Institutional Networks: Need robust networks for diffusion of ideas, collaboration between academia, industry, and public research institutions. Trans-Political Knowledge Sharing: India’s historic “republic of letters” model of open, cross-regional intellectual exchange can be leveraged to foster modern innovation ecosystems. State Role vs. Market Role: Mokyr downplays state intervention in sustained innovation. Contemporary examples (China, EU) show state-led policies can complement elite and private innovation networks. Structural Gaps in India’s Knowledge Systems Weak integration of science, engineering, and industrial production. Limited culture of risk-taking, experimentation, and failure tolerance in institutions. R&D intensity: ~0.65% of GDP, far below advanced economies (US 3.4%, China 2.4%). Low private-sector participation in deep-tech innovation (~30% of India’s total R&D). Historical institutions did not create sufficient mechanisms for scaling knowledge into industrial output. Contemporary Implications Innovation Ecosystem Building: Develop institutions that encourage translational research. Promote startups and tech ventures that apply scientific knowledge. Policy Design: Incentivise private sector participation in R&D. Support centres of excellence, collaborative labs, and tech parks. Human Capital: Cultivate scientific literacy, curiosity, and experimentation culture among elites and students. Encourage interdisciplinary research bridging STEM, design, and business applications. Global Learning: Leverage lessons from European industrialization, US DARPA model, and Chinese state-private innovation partnerships. Strategic Takeaways Core Takeaway: Knowledge power arises not from raw resources or necessity alone but from sustained accumulation, diffusion, and institutional application of knowledge. India’s Path Forward: Create productive feedback loops between research and industry. Foster elite and institutional culture valuing curiosity, experimentation, and risk-taking. Leverage historical intellectual networks to build modern innovation ecosystems. Vision: By integrating Mokyr’s principles with modern policy and market mechanisms, India can emerge as a global knowledge power and drive long-term technological sovereignty.

Content SC expresses ‘grave concern’ over rising digital arrest scams Nashik unit open; HAL can roll out 24 Tejas jets a year Rotavirus vaccine effective against gastroenteritis in children: study Curb on use of ‘ORS’ term brings to light a doctor’s 8-year battle WMO: Record rise in global CO2 concentrations Where springs once sang, silence now echoes across the Eastern Himalayas SC expresses ‘grave concern’ over rising digital arrest scams  Why in News ? What happened: Supreme Court (SC) took suo motu cognisance of rising digital arrest scams. Trigger: A septuagenarian couple from Ambala, Haryana, lost ₹1.5 crore to conmen impersonating CBI, Enforcement Directorate, and judicial officers. SC’s stance: Described it as a matter of “grave concern”; emphasized coordinated national action. Entities involved for response: Union Government, Haryana Government, and CBI. Relevance: GS-2: Governance – Cybercrime management, Inter-agency coordination, Supreme Court suo motu interventions. GS-3: Science & Technology – Cyber fraud trends, Digital financial crimes, Use of technology in scams. GS-4: Ethics – Public awareness, Protection of vulnerable citizens, Responsibility of institutions. Understanding Digital Arrest Scams Definition: Cyber frauds where criminals impersonate law enforcement, judiciary, or government officials. Modus Operandi: Sending fake court orders, warrants, or summons digitally (email, WhatsApp, SMS). Threatening immediate arrest or legal action to extort money. Using forged documents from multiple judicial or investigative agencies to increase authenticity. Victims targeted: Often elderly or less tech-savvy individuals. Financial impact: Losses can range from lakhs to crores of rupees per victim. Scope and Magnitude Nationwide concern: SC noted this is not a solitary instance; reported across multiple states. Digital crime trends in India: Cybercrime complaints reported to National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (NCRP): ~ 5.5 lakh in 2024 (all categories). Financial frauds and impersonation cases are growing at ~20–25% per year. Elderly and urban professionals are high-risk targets due to perceived wealth. Technology exploitation: Fraudsters increasingly use deepfakes, official seals, and realistic document templates. Legal & Institutional Framework Existing laws applicable: IPC Sections 420, 467, 468, 471 – cheating, forgery, and fraud. Information Technology Act 2000 – cyber fraud, identity theft, digital impersonation. Investigating agencies: CBI: Handles large-scale interstate scams. State Cyber Cells: Investigate local digital frauds. Enforcement Directorate: Investigates if money laundering or cross-border transfer involved. Challenges: Jurisdictional issues across states. Difficulty in tracking digital transactions and fraudsters. Lack of awareness among victims. Supreme Court’s Observations & Implications Key observations: Fabrication of multiple judicial documents to dupe victims. Fraud is a well-organized criminal enterprise, not isolated incidents. Calls for pan-India stern action to uncover and prevent such scams. Implications: Likely directives to Union & State Governments to issue public advisories. Possible strengthening of cybercrime cells and coordination between central and state agencies. Courts may consider fast-tracking cybercrime cases. Preventive & Citizen Measures Awareness campaigns: Government advisories on digital impersonation scams. Verification: Always verify court notices with official portals or through local police. Reporting: Register complaints via NCRP, local police, or CBI helplines. Technology safeguards: Use official apps and secure banking channels, avoid sharing OTPs or banking credentials. Data / Facts to Highlight ₹1.5 crore lost by the Ambala couple – SC cited as illustrative case. Cybercrime complaints in India: ~5.5 lakh in 2024 (uptrend). Financial frauds growing 20–25% per year. Elderly victims increasingly targeted. Nashik unit open; HAL can roll out 24 Tejas jets a year Why in News ? Event: Defence Minister Rajnath Singh inaugurated: Third production line of Light Combat Aircraft Tejas Mk1A. Second production line of HTT–40 trainer aircraft at HAL Nashik facility. Significance: Flagged off first LCA Mk1A produced at Nashik, symbolizing India’s growing self-reliance in defence manufacturing. Context: Part of ongoing defence sector transformation under PM Modi since 2014, emphasizing Make in India and indigenisation. Relevance: GS-2: Governance – Defence policy implementation, Make in India, Public sector reforms. GS-3: Economy – Defence manufacturing, Employment generation, Strategic industrial capacity. GS-3: Science & Technology – Indigenous aircraft production, Technological self-reliance, Aerospace innovations. Basics LCA Tejas Mk1A: Indigenous lightweight multirole fighter aircraft. Upgraded version of LCA Mk1; includes advanced avionics, radar, EW capabilities. Current Nashik line capacity: 8 aircraft/year, total HAL capacity with three lines: 24 aircraft/year. HTT-40: Indigenous basic trainer aircraft for IAF pilot training. Second production line at Nashik complements first line in Bengaluru. HAL (Hindustan Aeronautics Limited): Backbone of India’s defence manufacturing ecosystem, integrating government, industry, and academia. Defence Manufacturing Transformation (2014–Present) Import vs domestic production: 2014: India imported 65–70% of military hardware. Present: ~65% domestically manufactured. Goal: 100% self-reliance. Policy reforms: Encouraged private sector participation. Focus on planning, advanced technology, and innovation to reduce strategic vulnerabilities. Operational proof: HAL integrated BrahMos missile on Su-30 aircraft during Operation Sindoor, ensuring timely destruction of terrorist hideouts. Demonstrates India’s design, production, and deployment capabilities. HAL Production & Expansion Production lines in India: LCA Mk1A: First two lines in Bengaluru; third in Nashik. HTT-40: First line in Bengaluru; second in Nashik. Capacity & expansion: Current Nashik line: 8 aircraft/year; total LCA Mk1A capacity: 24 aircraft/year. Planned expansion in 2 years: up to 10 aircraft/year at Nashik with additional assembly jig line, tooling, and pre-installation check facilities. Economic impact: Creation of ~1,000 jobs in Nashik. Development of 40+ industry partners in Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. Strategic Significance Reduces import dependence on fighter jets, missiles, engines, and electronic warfare systems. Strengthens national security and operational readiness of Indian Air Force. Enhances Make in India initiative credibility in high-tech defence manufacturing. Demonstrates synergy among government, HAL, private industry, and academia. Key Data / Facts LCA Mk1A production capacity: 24 aircraft/year (with three lines). Nashik line: 8 aircraft/year, expansion to 10/year planned. Jobs created: ~1,000; 40+ industry partners developed. India’s domestic defence manufacturing: ~65% currently, up from <35% in 2014. HAL key achievements: BrahMos integration on Su-30 during Operation Sindoor. Rotavirus vaccine effective against gastroenteritis in children: study  Why in News ? Event: Publication of a multi–centre observational study on the effectiveness of India’s indigenous Rotavac vaccine under the Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP) 2016–2020. Source: Study led by Gagandeep Kang, Nayana P. Nair, and Samarasimha N. Reddy; published in Nature Medicine. Context: Evaluates real-world impact of Rotavac, India’s first indigenous oral rotavirus vaccine. Relevance: GS-2: Governance – Universal Immunisation Programme, Public health policy, Evidence-based decision-making. GS-3: Economy – Domestic vaccine production, Atmanirbhar Bharat in healthcare, Cost-effective health interventions. GS-1: Society – Reduction in child mortality, Strengthening societal health outcomes. Basics Rotavirus: Major cause of severe gastroenteritis and diarrhoealdeaths in children under 5. Global burden: ~128,500 deaths annually in India among under-five children. Rotavac vaccine: Oral, indigenous, developed by Bharat Biotech in collaboration with DBT, Indian govt., and international partners. Administration schedule: 6, 10, and 14 weeks of age under UIP. Publicly available and free to all eligible children under UIP. Study Design & Coverage Type: Observational, multi-centre, real-world effectiveness study. Timeframe: 2016–2020, covering introduction of Rotavac in UIP. Scope: 31 hospitals across 9 Indian states. Compared proportion of paediatric rotavirus hospitalisations before and after vaccine introduction. Objective: Assess real-world vaccine effectiveness outside controlled clinical trials. Key Findings Overall effectiveness:54% reduction in rotavirus-based gastroenteritis among vaccinated children. Comparable to phase 3 clinical trial efficacy (54%), confirming effectiveness in routine conditions. Age-specific impact: Effectiveness sustained in first two years of life, when disease burden is highest. Hospitalisation impact: Significant decline in rotavirus hospitalisations across study sites. Broader implication: Confirms indigenous vaccines can be effective in real-world settings, not just clinical trials. Strategic & Operational Significance Indigenous development: Reduces reliance on foreign vaccines; aligns with Atmanirbhar Bharat in healthcare. Evidence-based policy: Provides data for scaling up Rotavac coverage and planning future vaccination campaigns. Global relevance: Adds India’s experience to rotavirus vaccine effectiveness in low- and middle-income countries. Key Data / Facts Vaccine efficacy: 54% (both in trial and real-world). UIP introduction: 2016. Hospitals studied: 31 across 9 states. Burden: 128,500 under-five deaths annually from rotavirus in India. Administration schedule: 6, 10, 14 weeks. Curb on use of ‘ORS’ term brings to light a doctor’s 8-year battle Why in News ? Event: FSSAI issued an order banning all beverages from using the term ‘ORS’ in their trademarked names. Background: Earlier, companies were allowed to use the term with disclaimers, which misled consumers. Trigger: Misuse of ORS branding led to children becoming critically dehydrated despite caregivers administering “store–bought ORS” products. Champion: Hyderabad paediatrician Dr Sivarangini Santhosh led an eight-year advocacy to prevent misuse of the ORS term. Relevance: GS-2: Governance – Regulatory oversight by FSSAI, Consumer protection, Long-term advocacy in health policy. GS-3: Economy – Preventing economic burden from hospitalisations, Ensuring safe medical consumption. GS-1: Society – Child health protection, Public awareness on correct ORS usage. GS-4: Ethics – Ethical responsibility in medical communication and product labelling. Understanding ORS Definition: Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS) is a medical solution containing precise ratios of glucose, sodium chloride, and potassium chloride. Purpose: Rehydrates patients by facilitating water absorption in the gut; prevents death from diarrhoea. Global significance: ORS is a landmark medical discovery by Dr Dilip Mahalanabis, saving millions of lives worldwide. Child mortality context in India: 13% of deaths in children under five are due to diarrhoea. Improper ORS use or substitutes can worsen dehydration and diarrhoea. Problem with Flavoured/Packaged ‘ORS’ Products Entered market over the last decade without adhering to correct sugar-salt ratios. Excess sugar can draw water out of the gut, worsening diarrhoea. Even with disclaimers, branding misleads caregivers, leading to critical dehydration. Case examples: Children in Hyderabad and Madhya Pradesh became critically ill after consuming such beverages. Regulatory Journey Initial confusion: ORS products are medical; assumed regulated by CDSCO (drug regulator). Correct authority: FSSAI (food regulator). Timeline: April 2022: FSSAI restricted ORS use with some limitations. Later reversed to allow ORS in names with disclaimers. October 2025: FSSAI finally bans use of ORS in beverage names. Advocacy: Dr Santhosh approached Telangana High Court, Health Minister, Prime Minister, and medical associations. Faced opposition from industry and social isolation. Health & Scientific Significance ORS works by osmosis: glucose and electrolytes pull water into the body, rehydrating effectively. Improper substitutes can: Increase severity of diarrhoea. Cause hospitalisations and deaths. Highlights the importance of correct labelling and public awareness of medical products. Key Facts & Data ORS prevents 13% of under-five deaths from diarrhoea in India. Misbranded ORS-like drinks caused critical dehydration and hospitalisations. Advocacy duration: 8 years by Dr Sivarangini Santhosh. Regulatory outcome: FSSAI bans the term ‘ORS’ in beverage names. Scientific fact: Proper ORS contains fixed glucose, sodium chloride, potassium chloride ratios; deviations can worsen dehydration. WMO: Record rise in global CO2 concentrations Why in News ? Event: World Meteorological Organization (WMO) released data showing a record rise in global CO2 concentrations between 2022 and 2024. Key highlights: Global average CO2: 423.1 ppm in 2024, up 2.9 ppm from 2023. Increase since 1990: +51.4 ppm. Global temperature: 2024 was the warmest year on record, 1.55°C above pre-industrial levels. First time the 1.5°C annual average threshold was crossed, a key climate benchmark. Relevance: GS-3: Environment – Climate change trends, GHG emissions, Global warming, Renewable energy imperatives. GS-2: Governance – International climate governance, Policy responses, Multilateral coordination (UNFCCC, WMO). GS-1: Society – Impact on livelihoods, Migration, and human security. Understanding CO2 and Greenhouse Gases ? CO2 as a greenhouse gas (GHG): Primary driver of climate change, contributing ~66% of global warming since pre-industrial times. Sources: Natural: respiration, decomposition, wildfires, ocean releases, volcanic eruptions. Anthropogenic: fossil fuel burning, industry, land-use change. Natural sinks (forests, oceans) absorb roughly half of human CO2 emissions. Other GHGs: Methane (CH4): 16% of warming; increased to 1,942 ppb in 2024. Lifetime ~12 years. Nitrous oxide (N2O): 6% of warming; increased to 338 ppb in 2024. Lifetime 100–120 years. Trends and Record Increase Long-term trend: CO2 has never declined in last 40 years; annual average increase: 0.8 ppm/year since 1957. Acceleration: 1960s: 0.8 ppm/year. 2011–2020: 2.4 ppm/year. 2023–2024: record jump of 3.5 ppm/year, unprecedented. Relative to pre-industrial levels (278.3 ppm): Current CO2 152% higher. Causes Behind Record Rise Anthropogenic emissions: Continued fossil fuel burning. Natural feedbacks reducing CO2 absorption: Oceans: reduced solubility due to higher temperatures. Forests and land sinks: extreme droughts, wildfires, deforestation reduced CO2 uptake. Exceptional events: Large-scale forest fires in 2024 added extra emissions. Feedback loops: Higher temperatures → less CO2 absorption → more warming → more emissions. Global Temperature Context 2024: Warmest year recorded, 1.55°C above pre-industrial levels. Significance: Breaching 1.5°C threshold increases risks of: Irreversible climate impacts (sea-level rise, ice melt). Extreme weather events (heatwaves, floods, droughts). GHG contribution: CO2: ~75% of warming in last decade. CH4: shorter-term impact but potent GHG. N2O: long-term atmospheric persistence. Implications and Challenges Rapid CO2 accumulation signals failure to slow emissions meaningfully despite global efforts. Climate feedbacks exacerbate warming: higher CO2 → reduced absorption → higher temperatures → more CO2 release. Urgency for action: Need enhanced mitigation, renewable energy adoption, forest protection, and global cooperation. Key Data / Facts Parameter 2024 Value Trend / Notes CO2 concentration 423.1 ppm +2.9 ppm from 2023, +51.4 ppm since 1990 Global temp above pre-industrial 1.55°C First annual average >1.5°C Methane (CH4) 1,942 ppb +8 ppb from 2023; avg 10.6 ppb/year last decade Nitrous oxide (N2O) 338 ppb +1 ppb from 2023; avg 1.07 ppb/year last decade CO2 contribution to warming ~66% since pre-industrial; ~75% in last decade Primary driver of climate change Where springs once sang, silence now echoes across the Eastern Himalayas Why in News ? Event: Report highlighting the drying of Himalayan springs and its impact on livelihoods, women, and local culture in Darjeeling Hills. Source: Field reportage and research by Kabindra Sharma, IUCN India Fellow, supported by NITI Aayog data. Context: Nearly 50% of springs in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) are drying up, threatening water security, agriculture, and traditional lifestyles. Relevance: GS-1: Society – Livelihoods, Gendered burden, Cultural impacts of water scarcity. GS-2: Governance – Water security policy, Spring revival initiatives, Climate-resilient local governance. GS-3: Environment – Hydrology, Deforestation, Ecosystem services, Agriculture dependency. Understanding Himalayan Springs ? Definition: Springs are natural groundwater outlets, providing freshwater for drinking, irrigation, and livestock. Significance: Source of water for 200 million people across ecologically fragile mountain systems in India (Himalayas, Western/Eastern Ghats, Aravallis). Sustain agriculture, livestock, and local livelihoods. Cultural and social importance; tied to traditional practices and local knowledge. Historical self-reliance: Villages like Kolbong Khasmahal were once self-sufficient in vegetables and milk, relying on local water sources. Causes of Drying Springs Climate shifts: Changing rainfall patterns, unpredictable monsoons, and prolonged dry periods. Deforestation & unsustainable land-use: Reduced soil water retention, increased runoff, and diminished aquifer recharge. Anthropogenic neglect: Limited recognition in national water governance frameworks prior to 2018; National Water Policies of 1987, 2002, 2012 made no mention of springs. Local impacts: Excessive withdrawal, lack of spring recharge practices, and encroachment. Socio-Economic Impacts Water access burden on women: Average of 2 hours/day spent fetching water from distant springs. Physical strain, health risks, and impact on household management. Livelihood loss: Decline in local vegetable production and dairy products like churpi. Dependence on imported vegetables and packaged milk from towns like Dhupguri and Maynaguri. Migration: Youth move to cities due to declining local economic opportunities. Pandemic effect: Returning migrants found parched lands and dry springs, compounding livelihood challenges. Environmental and Ecological Implications Water stress: Springs drying → reduced soil moisture → declining crop productivity. Forest degradation: Feedback loop with deforestation and drought further reduces natural recharge of springs. Biodiversity: Reduced water availability affects flora, fauna, and livestock dependent on spring-fed ecosystems. Ecological crisis: Combined hydrological, agricultural, and biodiversity loss threatens the Himalayan ecosystem. Policy & Governance Context NITI Aayog 2018 Report: First formal acknowledgment of spring degradation; launched Inventory and Revival of Springs for Water Security in the Himalayas. Gap in policy: Prior national water policies ignored mountain spring systems, reflecting institutional neglect. Regional water governance: Ongoing initiatives by SaciWATERs and IUCN India focus on climate resilience, water management, and revival of springs. Cultural and Human Security Implications Springs are intertwined with traditions, local knowledge, and community identity. Drying springs are a non-traditional security threat: Threat to livelihoods and food security. Gendered burden on women’s labor and time. Potential migration and social disruption. Key Facts / Data Parameter Value / Observation Himalayan springs dried ~50% of total springs in IHR People dependent on spring water ~200 million across India Daily water fetching time (women) ~2 hours/day in Darjeeling villages Economic shift From locally produced vegetables/milk to imported vegetables and packaged milk Recognition in policy NITI Aayog 2018 report on Inventory & Revival of Springs