Content Economic Survey 2025–26 Connectivity Projects under the Northeast Economic Corridor (NEEC) Economic Survey 2025–26 Context Economic Survey 2025–26, tabled ahead of Union Budget, projects robust medium-term growth, historically low inflation, strong fiscal credibility, and resilient financial buffers despite adverse global economic conditions. Background and context The Economic Survey is an annual, non-statutory policy document prepared by the Chief Economic Adviser, offering macroeconomic assessment, risk analysis, and reform priorities guiding fiscal and monetary policymaking. Relevance GS 3 (Economy): GDP growth projections, inflation management, fiscal consolidation, capital expenditure, banking sector health, trade performance, external sector resilience, and financial inclusion. State of the Indian economy: macro overview Growth outlook India’s real GDP growth for FY27 is projected at 6.8–7.2%, with potential growth estimated around 7%, reflecting sustained demand, investment momentum, and structural reforms amid global uncertainty. First Advance Estimates indicate FY26 GDP growth at 7.4% and GVA growth at 7.3%, supported by agriculture recovery, manufacturing acceleration, and services-led expansion. Inflation trends India recorded historic low CPI inflation averaging 1.7% during April–December 2025, driven by food and fuel disinflation, making it one of the sharpest inflation declines among EMDEs. RBI revised FY26 inflation forecast downward from 2.6% to 2.0%, while IMF projects 2.8% in FY26 and 4.0% in FY27, indicating a benign inflation outlook. Sectoral drivers of growth Agriculture and allied activities Agriculture is estimated to grow 3.1% in FY26, stabilising rural demand, supported by favourable monsoon, improved crop yields, and agricultural GVA growth of 3.6% in H1 FY26. Allied sectors like livestock and fisheries recorded stable 5–6% growth, enhancing income diversification, resilience, and reducing agriculture’s vulnerability to climatic shocks. Industry and manufacturing The industrial sector is projected to grow 6.2% in FY26, with H1 growth of 7.0%, exceeding pre-COVID trends, signalling broad-based industrial recovery. Manufacturing GVA surged 7.72% in Q1 and 9.13% in Q2 FY26, reflecting structural revival driven by PLI schemes, infrastructure push, and improved corporate balance sheets. PLI schemes across 14 sectors attracted over ₹2 lakh crore investment, generated ₹18.7 lakh crore incremental output, and created 12.6 lakh jobs by September 2025. Services sector Services grew 9.1% in FY26, with GDP share rising to 53.6% and GVA share to a historic 56.4%, underlining India’s transition towards a services-driven economy. India became the 7th largest services exporter, doubling its global share from 2% (2005) to 4.3% (2024), led by IT, financial, and professional services. Employment and labour market trends Total employment reached 56.2 crore persons in Q2 FY26, with net addition of 8.7 lakh jobs, reflecting labour market resilience amid economic expansion. PLFS data shows LFPR at 56.1%, female LFPR at 35.3%, WPR at 53.4%, and unemployment declining to 4.8%, indicating improved labour absorption. Organised manufacturing employment rose 6% YoY in FY24, adding over 10 lakh jobs, confirming industrial recovery translating into formal employment generation. Trade and external sector performance India’s total exports reached USD 825.3 billion in FY25 and USD 418.5 billion in H1 FY26, driven primarily by services and non-petroleum exports. Services exports hit a record USD 387.5 billion in FY25, growing 13.6% YoY, reinforcing India’s global competitiveness in knowledge-intensive sectors. India’s share in global merchandise exports rose from 1% (2005) to 1.8% (2024), reflecting gradual integration into global trade networks. External buffers Foreign exchange reserves stood at USD 701.4 billion (January 2026), providing 11 months import cover and covering 94% of external debt, strengthening external shock absorption capacity. India remained the world’s largest remittance recipient with USD 135.4 billion inflows in FY25, increasingly sourced from advanced economies, reflecting skilled workforce migration. Industrial output indicators Index of Industrial Production (IIP) grew 7.8% in December 2025, highest in over two years, driven by manufacturing growth of 8.1%, mining 6.8%, and electricity 6.3%. Eight Core Industries Index showed strong momentum, with cement growth at 13.5% and steel at 6.9%, reflecting sustained infrastructure and construction demand. Fiscal developments Strengthened fiscal credibility India received three sovereign credit rating upgrades in 2025, reflecting improved fiscal discipline, revenue buoyancy, and commitment to capital-led growth. Revenue and taxation Centre’s revenue receipts increased from 8.5% of GDP (FY16–20) to 9.2% of GDP in FY25, supported by buoyant non-corporate tax collections. Direct taxes’ share rose to 58.8% of total taxes in FY25, with income-tax filers increasing from 6.9 crore (FY22) to 9.2 crore (FY25). Capital expenditure and debt Effective capital expenditure rose to 4% of GDP in FY25, sustaining growth while reducing general government debt-GDP ratio by 7.1 percentage points since 2020. Under Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment (SASCI), States maintained capital spending at 2.4% of GDP, supporting cooperative fiscal federalism. Monetary and financial sector developments Monetary policy and liquidity RBI reduced repo rate by 100 basis points to 5.25% during April–December 2025, complemented by CRR cut to 3%, enhancing credit availability. System liquidity remained in surplus at ₹1.89 lakh crore in FY26, aided by OMOs and forex swaps, supporting monetary transmission. Banking sector health Gross NPAs declined to multi-decadal lows, with CRAR at 17.2%, ROE at 12.5%, and ROA at 1.3%, indicating strong banking sector fundamentals. Bank credit growth accelerated to 14.5% YoY in December 2025, with MSME credit expanding 21.8%, especially micro and small enterprises. Financial inclusion and capital markets RBI Financial Inclusion Index improved from 64.2 (March 2024) to 67.0 (March 2025), reflecting enhanced access, usage, and quality of financial services. Household financialisation deepened, with equity and mutual funds share rising to 15.2% of savings in FY25, and household equity wealth increasing ₹53 lakh crore since 2020. Conclusion: mains-ready synthesis Economic Survey 2025–26 portrays India as a resilient, high-growth economy with strong macro fundamentals, low inflation, robust fiscal credibility, deepening financial markets, and capacity to withstand global shocks while sustaining inclusive growth. Connectivity Projects under the Northeast Economic Corridor (NEEC) Why is it in news? In January 2026, the Government informed Parliament about progress under the Northeast Economic Corridor, PM-DevINE projects, and major road, rail, and digital connectivity expansion across the North-Eastern Region. Relevance GS 2 (Polity / Governance): Cooperative federalism through NEC and HLTFs, Centre–State coordination, role of DoNER, digital governance via monitoring portals, and implementation capacity. GS 3 (Infrastructure / Regional Development / Security): Roads, railways, digital connectivity, PM-DevINE, logistics efficiency, employment generation, Act East Policy linkage, and strategic border connectivity. Background and context Strategic importance of the North-Eastern Region (NER) The North-East is strategically vital due to its international borders, Act East Policy relevance, security sensitivities, and historical infrastructure deficit, making connectivity central to integration and development. Institutional trigger During the 72nd Plenary of the North Eastern Council (NEC) in December 2024, consensus led to creation of sector-specific High-Level Task Forces to accelerate economic transformation. Northeast Economic Corridor (NEEC) High-Level Task Force on NEEC A dedicated High-Level Task Force on NEEC, convened by the Chief Minister of Mizoram, was constituted to assess infrastructure gaps, investment ecosystem, and formulate corridor-based development strategies. The Task Force includes the Union DoNER Minister and Chief Ministers of Assam, Meghalaya, and Manipur, ensuring cooperative federalism and regional coordination in corridor planning. Mandate and objectives The NEEC Task Force focuses on evaluating existing economic infrastructure, identifying logistics and connectivity gaps, and recommending policy measures to attract private investment into the North-East. PM-DevINE scheme: development backbone Objectives of PM-DevINE PM-DevINE aims at rapid and holistic development of NER through infrastructure creation, social sector projects, livelihood enhancement for youth and women, and bridging long-standing regional development gaps. Project scale and funding Since inception, 48 projects worth ₹6,044.36 crore have been sanctioned under PM-DevINE up to January 2026, reflecting focused public investment in the North-East. Road connectivity expansion National Highways growth National Highway length in NER expanded from 10,905 km in 2014 to 16,207 km by April 2025, significantly improving inter-state and national connectivity. Currently, 177 highway projects covering 3,635 km, costing ₹87,119 crore, are under various stages of implementation across the region. Rural roads under PMGSY Under PMGSY, 17,666 road works spanning 89,503 km and 2,396 bridges were sanctioned, strengthening last-mile connectivity in remote and hilly areas. Of these, 16,547 road works (81,448 km) and 2,126 bridges have been completed, with total expenditure of ₹53,353.49 crore, including State contributions. Connectivity projects under MDoNER MDoNER sanctioned 647 road and bridge projects worth ₹8,260.88 crore, of which 500 projects costing ₹4,915 crore have already been completed, accelerating regional mobility. These projects focus on inter-district connectivity, border area access, and linking production clusters with markets, particularly in difficult terrain. Rail connectivity in the North-East Status of railway projects As of April 2025, 12 railway projects (8 new lines and 4 doubling projects) spanning 777 km and costing ₹69,342 crore were sanctioned in the North-East. Out of the sanctioned length, 278 km has been commissioned, improving passenger mobility, freight movement, and integration with national rail networks. Structural constraint Railway projects are executed on a zonal basis, not State-wise, reflecting cross-boundary nature but also complicating coordination and monitoring in the North-East. Digital connectivity expansion BharatNet progress Under BharatNet, 6,355 Gram Panchayats in the North-East were made service-ready for high-bandwidth broadband connectivity by December 2025. Mobile connectivity Under the 4G Saturation Project and allied schemes, 3,718 mobile towers have been commissioned, covering 5,366 villages and locations, reducing digital isolation. Monitoring and governance mechanisms Multi-layered monitoring framework Primary monitoring responsibility lies with State governments and implementing agencies, while DoNER oversees projects through Field Technical Support Units, Project Quality Monitors, and third-party inspections. Inspection reports are uploaded on the Poorvottar Vikas Setu portal, enabling transparent, real-time digital monitoring and accountability. Integration with PM Gati Shakti Field units update project progress on the PM Gati Shakti National Master Plan portal, ensuring inter-ministerial coordination and reducing infrastructure silos. Implementation challenges Project timelines are affected by difficult terrain, land acquisition constraints, statutory clearances, forest approvals, and logistical bottlenecks, common in the ecologically sensitive North-East. Economic and strategic benefits Economic integration and growth Improved connectivity enables faster movement of agricultural produce, essential goods, and industrial inputs, lowering logistics costs and enhancing market access for North-Eastern States. Employment and livelihoods Infrastructure expansion generates direct construction employment and indirect opportunities in tourism, logistics, agro-processing, and small industries, supporting inclusive regional growth. Strategic and social integration Enhanced connectivity strengthens national integration, improves border area accessibility, boosts security logistics, and aligns the North-East more closely with India’s economic mainstream. Way forward: policy focus Corridor-based planning under NEEC should be aligned with Act East Policy, cross-border trade potential, and value-chain development to convert connectivity into sustained economic transformation. Greater private sector participation, faster clearances, and environmentally sensitive infrastructure design are essential to maximise returns on connectivity investments. Mains-ready takeaway The Northeast Economic Corridor, supported by PM-DevINE and multi-sectoral connectivity expansion, marks a shift from infrastructure deficit correction to growth-oriented regional integration, strengthening economic, strategic, and social cohesion in the North-East.

Content India’s Green Steel Transition Signing of FTAs Is a Start: Measuring Success Through Global Market Gains India’s Green Steel Transition Why is it in News? India committed at COP30 (Belém, Brazil) to submit a more ambitious revised NDC, signalling deeper economy-wide decarbonisation, with steel identified as a critical hard-to-abate sector. Relevance GS 2 (International Relations): India’s revised NDC, COP commitments, CBAM implications, and climate diplomacy shaping trade and industrial strategy. GS 3 (Economy): Industrial decarbonisation, steel sector transition, green hydrogen, carbon pricing, competitiveness, and stranded asset risks. Practice Question Discuss the economic and strategic risks of continued investment in coal-based steel infrastructure in India in the context of global carbon pricing and CBAM.(250 Words) Basics: Steel Sector and Climate Linkages Importance of Steel in India’s Growth Model Steel underpins infrastructure, housing, manufacturing, and defence, with India aiming to raise production from ~125 MT currently to over 400 MT by mid-century. Emissions Profile of Indian Steel Steel contributes ~12% of India’s total CO₂ emissions, primarily due to coal-based blast furnace routes, making it among the most carbon-intensive industrial sectors. The Twin Challenge: Development vs Decarbonisation Avoiding Carbon Lock-in Steel plants have long lifespans of 30–40 years, meaning continued investment in coal-based blast furnaces risks locking India into high-emission infrastructure for decades. Economic Risk of Inaction Persisting with carbon-intensive steel risks stranded assets, higher export barriers, and declining global competitiveness as markets increasingly price carbon intensity. Global Context: Why Green Steel Is Becoming Inevitable International Transition Trends China is expanding scrap-based secondary steel and hydrogen pilots, while the EU has pursued steel decarbonisation for nearly two decades. Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) The EU’s CBAM will impose carbon-linked tariffs on steel imports, penalising high-emission producers and rewarding early movers in low-carbon steel production. India’s Industry Response: Early but Inadequate Corporate Initiatives Tata Steel has piloted hydrogen injection, renewable power sourcing, and CCUS; JSW, JSPL explore hydrogen; SAIL is modernising furnaces and testing low-carbon routes. Key Limitation Most initiatives remain at pilot scale, with insufficient transition to demonstration plants or full-scale near-zero-carbon production technologies. Policy Progress So Far Greening Steel Roadmap (2024) The roadmap outlines phased decarbonisation pathways, signalling long-term intent but lacking enforceable timelines or strong financial incentives to shift away from coal. Green Steel Taxonomy (Dec 2024) India became the first country globally to formalise a Green Steel Taxonomy, defining emission thresholds and enabling certification, disclosure, and potential market creation. Supporting Policy Signals National Green Hydrogen Mission, renewable capacity expansion, and Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) targets for 253 steel units show directional momentum. Major Barriers to Green Steel in India Technology and Input Constraints High cost and limited availability of green hydrogen, insufficient renewable power dedicated to industry, and weak scrap availability constrain rapid scale-up of low-carbon steel. Market and Finance Constraints Green steel projects require 30–50% higher capital investment, face lack of long-tenure low-cost finance, and insufficient risk-sharing mechanisms for first movers. Institutional and Workforce Gaps Fragmented scrap markets, limited gas infrastructure, absence of CO₂ transport networks, and need for workforce upskilling slow transition across large and small producers. Role of Carbon Pricing and Market Creation Carbon Price as Transition Enabler European experience shows near-zero steel technologies became viable only after carbon prices reached $90–100 per tonne of CO₂, offering lessons for India’s sequencing. Demand-Side Pull for Green Steel Public procurement mandates, certification, and labelling can create assured domestic demand, reducing commercial risk and accelerating investment in clean steel capacity. Strategic Role of the State Government as Regulator and Enabler The state must set clear short-, medium-, and long-term emission targets, ensuring policy predictability for capital planning while avoiding ad-hoc regulatory shocks. Infrastructure Hubs and Shared Assets Developing green steel hubs with shared renewable power, hydrogen, gas pipelines, and CO₂ evacuation infrastructure can reduce costs and enable cluster-based decarbonisation. Equity and Just Transition Concerns Supporting MSME Steel Producers Smaller steel manufacturers lack capital buffers and technology access, requiring targeted fiscal support, concessional finance, and technology transfer to ensure equitable transition. Strategic Significance for India Climate and NDC Alignment Green steel is indispensable for achieving deeper NDC ambition, as industrial decarbonisation increasingly determines credibility of long-term net-zero pathways. Economic and Geopolitical Advantage Early leadership in green steel can secure export competitiveness, attract climate-aligned capital, and position India as a norm-setter in sustainable industrialisation. Way Forward: Policy-Industry Compact Key Action Points Mandate low-carbon pathways for all new steel capacity, operationalise carbon pricing, scale green hydrogen, formalise scrap markets, and align procurement with green standards. Core Takeaway Green steel is no longer optional; it is central to India’s revised NDC, long-term competitiveness, and global leadership, demanding decisive policy signals and rapid industrial scale-up. Signing of FTAs Is a Start: Measuring Success Through Global Market Gains Why is it in News? India has signed multiple Free Trade Agreements recently, reviving debate on whether FTAs translate into real global market share gains or remain symbolic without domestic competitiveness reforms. Relevance   GS 2 (International Relations): Trade diplomacy, FTAs with major partners, India’s negotiating credibility, and role in shaping global trade rules. GS 3 (Economy): Export competitiveness, manufacturing productivity, non-tariff barriers, logistics costs, and global value chain integration. Practice Question Analyse the role of non-tariff barriers in limiting India’s gains from FTAs. What domestic reforms are required to address this challenge?(250 Words) What Are Free Trade Agreements (FTAs)? Definition and Core Objective FTAs are bilateral or multilateral trade agreements aimed at reducing tariffs and trade barriers to enhance market access, export competitiveness, investment flows, and integration into global value chains. India’s Recent FTA Push India has concluded FTAs with UAE, Australia, EFTA, and is negotiating with EU and UK, reflecting a strategic shift from protectionism to selective trade liberalisation. India’s Trade Context: The Structural Challenge India’s Global Trade Position Despite being a major economy, India’s share in global merchandise exports remains modest at around 1.8%, indicating limited success in converting scale into global market dominance. Export Concentration and Vulnerability India’s exports remain concentrated in few sectors like petroleum products, gems, pharmaceuticals, and IT-enabled services, limiting diversification and resilience against global demand shocks. FTAs as Opportunity, Not Automatic Gains Market Access vs Market Capture FTAs only reduce tariffs; actual gains depend on firms’ ability to meet quality, scale, logistics, and compliance standards required to capture and sustain foreign market share. Evidence from Comparative Economies Countries like Vietnam and China have leveraged FTAs to expand exports significantly by aligning domestic reforms with trade agreements, unlike India’s relatively muted post-FTA export response. Non-Tariff Barriers: The Hidden Constraint Nature of Non-Tariff Measures (NTMs) Advanced economies increasingly rely on product standards, safety norms, environmental rules, and certification requirements, which often restrict exports more than tariffs themselves. India’s Compliance Gap Indian exporters frequently face rejection due to SPS, TBT, and quality non-compliance, raising costs and eroding competitiveness even under preferential tariff access. Manufacturing Competitiveness: The Missing Link Scale and Productivity Constraints India’s manufacturing sector is dominated by small firms lacking scale, technology, and productivity, limiting their ability to exploit FTA-enabled access to large, competitive global markets. Logistics and Trade Facilitation Issues High logistics costs, estimated at 13–14% of GDP, weak port efficiency, and slow customs clearance reduce India’s export competitiveness relative to East Asian manufacturing hubs. FTAs and Global Value Chains (GVCs) Importance of Intermediate Goods Trade Modern trade is driven by intermediate inputs; FTAs must enable seamless sourcing and integration into GVCs rather than focusing narrowly on final goods exports. India’s Limited GVC Integration India remains weakly integrated into global manufacturing value chains compared to ASEAN economies, reducing the export multipliers expected from FTAs. Domestic Policy Alignment: The Decisive Factor Need for Complementary Reforms FTAs succeed only when supported by domestic reforms in labour laws, land markets, infrastructure, credit access, and regulatory predictability that lower production and transaction costs. Role of Industrial Policy Production-linked incentives, skill development, and cluster-based manufacturing ecosystems are essential to convert preferential market access into sustained export expansion. Strategic Risks of Incomplete FTA Utilisation Risk of Import Surge Without Export Gains Without competitiveness reforms, FTAs can increase imports faster than exports, widening trade deficits and fuelling domestic opposition to trade liberalisation. Credibility and Negotiating Power Failure to deliver post-FTA export growth weakens India’s credibility in future trade negotiations and reduces its leverage in shaping global trade rules. Way Forward: Making FTAs Work for India Policy and Institutional Priorities India must shift focus from signing FTAs to export readiness through quality infrastructure, standards harmonisation, logistics modernisation, MSME upgrading, and targeted trade facilitation. Measuring Success Metrics Success of FTAs should be judged by sustained export growth, diversification, global market share gains, and deeper GVC integration, not merely by number of agreements signed. Takeaway FTAs are necessary but insufficient; without deep domestic competitiveness reforms, India risks preferential access without market power, turning trade agreements into missed economic opportunities.

Content Menstrual Health in Schools and the Right to Life UGC Equity Rules and Article 15 Stem Cell Therapy and Autism: Science, Ethics, and Regulation CEA Proposal to Ease Green Norms for Pumped Storage Projects (PSPs) Illegal Electric Fencing and Emerging Threat to Big Cats Recognising Village Commons as a Distinct Land-Use Category Menstrual Health in Schools and the Right to Life Why is it in news? The Supreme Court held that lack of menstrual hygiene management (MHM) in schools violates Article 21, directing States and Union Territories to ensure free access to sanitary napkins in all schools. Relevance GS 1 (Society): Gender inequality, stigma around menstruation, adolescent health, education access for girls. GS 2 (Polity & Governance): Article 21 (Right to Life with dignity), Article 14–15 (equality), positive obligations of the State, judicial activism. GS 2 (Social Justice): Child rights, women’s rights, Centre–State responsibility in health and education. Background and Context Menstrual health as a public policy issue Menstrual hygiene in India has historically been treated as a welfare concern rather than a rights-based issue, resulting in uneven access, stigma, and exclusion in educational institutions. Judicial intervention The Supreme Court adjudicated that inadequate MHM infrastructure in schools leads to humiliation, exclusion, and denial of dignity, directly infringing the constitutional right to life. Constitutional and Legal Dimension Article 21 and dignity The Court reaffirmed that the right to life under Article 21 includes dignity, bodily autonomy, privacy, and conditions enabling full participation in education without discrimination. Positive obligations of the State The judgment expands Article 21 to impose a positive duty on governments to ensure enabling conditions, not merely prevent direct violations of fundamental rights. Gender equality linkage Inadequate MHM disproportionately affects girls, reinforcing indirect discrimination and violating the constitutional guarantee of equality and non-discrimination under Articles 14 and 15. Education and Social Dimension Impact on school participation Absence of sanitary products, privacy, and disposal facilities leads to absenteeism, dropouts, and learning gaps among adolescent girls, especially in rural and low-income settings. Stigma and psychosocial harm Menstruation-related stigma in schools results in shame, anxiety, and loss of self-esteem, affecting mental health and long-term educational aspirations of girl students. Intersection with poverty Girls from economically weaker households face compounded disadvantages due to inability to afford sanitary products, making schools critical access points for menstrual health support. Public Health Dimension Health consequences of poor MHM Lack of safe menstrual hygiene increases risk of reproductive tract infections, urinary infections, and long-term gynaecological health complications. Preventive healthcare approach School-based MHM interventions act as preventive public health measures, reducing disease burden and promoting adolescent health awareness at an early, formative stage. Governance and Administrative Dimension Fragmented implementation Despite schemes like Menstrual Hygiene Scheme and Swachh Bharat initiatives, MHM implementation remains inconsistent due to weak monitoring and inter-departmental coordination. Infrastructure gaps Many schools lack functional toilets, water supply, disposal mechanisms, and vending facilities, limiting the effectiveness of sanitary napkin distribution alone. Centre–State responsibility Education and health being concurrent/state subjects necessitate coordinated Centre–State action, with judicial directions reinforcing accountability at multiple governance levels. Ethical and Human Rights Perspective Menstrual health as human dignity Denial of menstrual hygiene facilities amounts to institutionalised indignity, violating ethical principles of justice, equality, and respect for bodily integrity. Child rights lens MHM is integral to children’s rights to health, education, and development, aligning with India’s obligations under the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. Global and SDG Linkages International commitments Ensuring menstrual hygiene aligns with SDG 3 (Health), SDG 4 (Education), SDG 5 (Gender Equality), and SDG 6 (Sanitation). Comparative practices Several countries integrate MHM into school health programmes, recognising it as essential infrastructure rather than discretionary welfare support. Challenges and Gaps Beyond product-centric approach Focus on sanitary napkins alone ignores needs like awareness, waste management, eco-friendly alternatives, and culturally sensitive education. Urban–rural divide Rural schools face greater deficits in infrastructure, awareness, and supply chains, risking uneven compliance with judicial directions. Sustainability concerns Disposal of single-use sanitary products raises environmental concerns, necessitating integration of biodegradable and reusable menstrual products. Way Forward Rights-based school MHM framework Integrate menstrual health explicitly into the Right to Education ecosystem, treating it as core educational infrastructure rather than auxiliary support. Holistic MHM strategy Combine free product access with functional toilets, water supply, disposal systems, health education, and teacher sensitisation programmes. Institutional accountability Establish monitoring indicators for MHM compliance within school accreditation and education department audits. Behavioural change and awareness Normalize menstruation through curriculum integration and community engagement to dismantle stigma and ensure sustained social acceptance. Conclusion   By recognising menstrual health as intrinsic to Article 21, the Supreme Court has shifted the discourse from welfare to rights, making dignified education for girls a constitutional mandate rather than a policy choice. Article 21: Expanded Spectrum of Rights (Judicial Interpretation) Right to live with human dignity – Life means more than mere animal existence; includes dignity, self-worth, and humane conditions of living. Right to livelihood – Deprivation of livelihood amounts to deprivation of life (Olga Tellis). Right to privacy – Covers bodily autonomy, decisional privacy, informational privacy (Puttaswamy). Right to health and medical care – State has a positive obligation to ensure access to healthcare. Right to emergency medical treatment – No denial of life-saving care due to procedure or cost. Right to clean drinking water – Integral to survival and public health. Right to clean and healthy environment – Includes pollution-free air, water, and ecological balance. Right to shelter – Includes adequate housing, sanitation, and basic civic amenities. Right to education (pre-21A) – Recognised as part of Article 21 before constitutional amendment. Right to speedy trial – Delay in justice violates personal liberty. Right to legal aid – Essential component of fair procedure and access to justice. Right against custodial torture and inhuman treatment – Absolute protection of bodily integrity. Right to reputation – An element of dignity and personal identity. Right to reproductive choice – Includes bodily autonomy and decisional freedom of women. Right to die with dignity – Passive euthanasia permitted under safeguards (Common Cause). UGC Equity Rules and Article 15 Why is it in news? The Supreme Court has stayed the UGC (Promotion of Equity in Higher Education Institutions) Regulations, 2026, amid challenges alleging “reverse discrimination” and questioning their constitutional basis. Relevance GS 2 (Polity): Article 15(1), 15(2), 15(4), 15(5), substantive equality, reasonable classification, constitutional morality. GS 2 (Governance): Regulation of higher education, institutional accountability, role of UGC, preventive anti-discrimination frameworks. GS 1 (Society): Caste system, social exclusion, structural discrimination in elite institutions. Background and Context Trigger for the 2026 Regulations The Regulations emerged from petitions by families of Rohith Vemula and Payal Tadvi, highlighting systemic caste discrimination and institutional failure within higher education campuses. Core constitutional question Whether targeted anti-discrimination safeguards for SC/ST/OBC students violate equality, or instead flow from Article 15’s mandate to remedy historical injustice. Article 15: Text, Purpose, and Constitutional Philosophy Article 15(1): Formal non-discrimination Article 15(1) prohibits State discrimination on grounds including caste, but by itself addresses only formal equality, not entrenched structural disadvantage. Article 15(2): Access to public spaces and institutions Article 15(2) was specifically designed to counter caste-based exclusion from public institutions, reflecting the Constitution’s awareness of socially embedded discrimination. Article 15(4) & 15(5): Enabling substantive equality These clauses constitutionally authorise special provisions for socially and educationally backward classes, recognising that identical treatment perpetuates inequality. Substantive Equality Doctrine: Judicial Interpretation Beyond symmetry in treatment The Supreme Court has consistently held that equality under Articles 14–15 is substantive, requiring differential treatment to correct unequal starting positions. Sukanya Shantha v. Union of India (2024) The Court affirmed that law must actively dismantle historical injustice, especially where caste operates as a pervasive social structure influencing institutions. Relevance to higher education Universities are not socially neutral spaces; caste hierarchies reproduce themselves through evaluation, discipline, mentoring, and informal networks, justifying targeted regulation. UGC Equity Regulations, 2026: Article 15 in Action Objective of the Regulations To promote “full equity and inclusion” in higher education by addressing caste-based discrimination that disproportionately affects historically marginalised groups. Rational nexus with Article 15 The Regulations operationalise Article 15 by recognising that caste discrimination is structurally asymmetric, not evenly distributed across social groups. Why focus on SC/ST/OBC students ? Constitutional history and social reality show that caste oppression has been systemic and unidirectional for centuries, warranting corrective institutional measures. The ‘Reverse Discrimination’ Argument: Constitutional Fallacy Misreading equality Claims of reverse discrimination assume equality means identical protection, ignoring that formal neutrality entrenches substantive inequality. No constitutional bar on asymmetry Article 15 does not mandate equal vulnerability; it mandates equal dignity, which may require unequal safeguards to reach comparable outcomes. General category protections already exist General laws on ragging, harassment, and disciplinary misconduct apply universally, while caste-specific protections address structural exclusion, not isolated misconduct. Reasonableness Test and Regulatory Validity Intelligible differentia Targeting SC/ST/OBC discrimination rests on clear historical and sociological evidence of systemic vulnerability, satisfying Article 14’s classification test. Rational connection to objective The differential treatment directly advances the goal of equity and inclusion, aligning with constitutional morality rather than arbitrary classification. Governance and Institutional Accountability Shift from episodic justice to preventive regulation The Regulations move from post-facto redress to institutional prevention, embedding constitutional values into university governance frameworks. Faculty and administration accountability By focusing on institutional responsibility, the Regulations recognise that caste discrimination often flows from power asymmetries, not peer-to-peer interactions alone. Ethical and Social Dimension Caste as a lived reality Treating caste discrimination as bidirectional ignores its embeddedness in social capital, authority, and evaluation systems, especially within elite educational spaces. Constitutional morality The Regulations reflect Ambedkar’s vision that equality requires state-led correction of inherited disadvantage, not passive neutrality. Implications of Diluting Article 15 Logic Risk of reverting to formal equality Striking down or weakening the Regulations risks reducing Article 15 to a procedural guarantee, hollowing out its transformative intent. Chilling effect on marginalised students Lack of explicit protections may deepen alienation, silence complaints, and reproduce exclusion, undermining access, retention, and mental health outcomes. Way Forward Judicial calibration, not dilution The Court may refine definitions or procedural safeguards, but must preserve the substantive equality core rooted in Article 15. Data-driven institutional mechanisms Universities should be mandated to maintain transparent data, grievance redressal systems, and sensitisation programmes aligned with constitutional values. University Grants Commission (UGC): Value Addition Notes 1. Constitutional & Legal Basis UGC derives authority from Entry 66 of Union List (coordination and determination of standards in higher education). Established under the UGC Act, 1956, giving it statutory powers to regulate universities. 2. Nature of the Institution UGC is a statutory regulatory body, not a constitutional body. Functions under the Ministry of Education (Department of Higher Education). 3. Core Objectives Maintain uniform standards in higher education. Promote access, equity, and excellence in universities. Ensure academic autonomy with accountability. 4. Regulatory Powers Recognition and de-recognition of universities. Prescription of minimum standards for faculty qualifications, infrastructure, and courses. Regulation of degree nomenclature and awarding powers. 5. Financial Role Disburses grants to Central Universities and eligible institutions. Uses funding as a regulatory lever to enforce compliance with standards. Stem Cell Therapy and Autism: Science, Ethics, and Regulation Why is it in news? The Supreme Court ruled that stem cell therapy cannot be offered as a clinical service for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) due to absence of proven safety, efficacy, and regulatory approval. Relevance GS 3 (Science & Technology): Stem cell technology, limits of biomedical innovation, distinction between research and clinical application. GS 2 (Governance): Regulation of medical practice, Clinical Trials Rules 2019, role of central regulatory authorities. Background and Context Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) ASD is a neurodevelopmental condition marked by social communication difficulties, repetitive behaviours, and sensory sensitivities, requiring behavioural, educational, and supportive interventions rather than curative biomedical treatment. Rise of unproven therapies In absence of a definitive cure, families often turn to experimental or alternative therapies, creating space for unregulated clinics to promote stem cell “treatments” without scientific backing. Stem Cell Therapy: Scientific Basics What is stem cell therapy? Stem cell therapy involves using undifferentiated cells with regenerative potential to repair or replace damaged tissues, currently approved only for limited, evidence-backed indications like certain blood disorders. Status in neurological conditions For complex neurodevelopmental disorders like autism, causal pathways are not fully understood, making biological interventions speculative and scientifically unvalidated. Supreme Court’s Key Findings Lack of scientific evidence The Court noted absence of credible, peer-reviewed evidence establishing safety or therapeutic benefit of stem cell therapy in autism, disqualifying it from routine clinical use. Distinction between research and treatment Experimental interventions may occur only within regulated clinical trials, not as commercial therapies offered to patients under the guise of treatment. Informed consent is not a substitute for evidence Consent obtained without reliable information on risks, benefits, and efficacy is not “informed consent”, especially when patients are vulnerable or desperate. Regulatory and Legal Framework Clinical Trials Rules, 2019 Indian law prohibits offering unapproved therapies outside approved clinical trials, mandating ethics committee clearance, trial registration, and regulatory oversight. Role of central regulatory authority The Court directed the Union government to designate a competent authority to monitor, regulate, and act against unauthorised stem cell interventions nationwide. Ethical Dimensions Exploitation of vulnerability Parents of children with autism face emotional distress, making them susceptible to false promises of “miracle cures”, raising serious ethical concerns of exploitation. Medical ethics principles Promotion of unproven therapies violates non-maleficence (do no harm), beneficence, and autonomy, as decisions are based on misinformation rather than evidence. Governance and Public Health Concerns Patient safety risks Unregulated stem cell interventions carry risks of infection, immune reactions, tumour formation, and irreversible harm, with no established benefit to justify exposure. Regulatory enforcement gap The judgment highlights weak enforcement against medical quackery, allowing illegal clinics to flourish despite existing biomedical regulations. Science Policy Perspective Evidence-based medicine The ruling reinforces that clinical services must be grounded in reproducible scientific evidence, not anecdotal success stories or commercial incentives. Protecting legitimate research By separating research from treatment, the Court safeguards ethical biomedical innovation, ensuring that experimental therapies progress through proper scientific validation. Implications for Autism Care Focus on proven interventions Autism management must prioritise early diagnosis, behavioural therapy, speech and occupational therapy, inclusive education, and family support, rather than biomedical shortcuts. Preventing medical misinformation Judicial intervention helps curb pseudoscientific narratives, promoting rational health-seeking behaviour and trust in public health systems. Way Forward Strengthening regulation Establish a national oversight mechanism for stem cell research and therapies, with strict penalties for violations and real-time monitoring of clinics. Public awareness and counselling Government and medical bodies must educate families about evidence-based autism care, risks of unproven therapies, and ethical clinical research pathways. Core Takeaway The Supreme Court’s ruling affirms that medical innovation cannot bypass scientific evidence and ethical safeguards, protecting vulnerable patients from exploitation while upholding the primacy of evidence-based healthcare. CEA Proposal to Ease Green Norms for Pumped Storage Projects (PSPs) Why is it in News? The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has proposed easing environmental and forest clearance norms for pumped-storage projects to accelerate capacity addition amid renewable energy expansion and storage shortages. Relevance GS 3 (Environment & Energy): Renewable energy transition, energy storage, climate mitigation vs environmental protection. GS 3 (Economy): Infrastructure development, power sector reforms, long-duration storage economics. Background and Context India’s Renewable Energy Transition India targets 500 GW non-fossil capacity by 2030, requiring large-scale energy storage to manage intermittency from solar and wind, which together form the backbone of future power supply. Role of Energy Storage Grid-scale storage is essential for balancing supply–demand, frequency regulation, and peak-load management, especially as renewable penetration increases beyond conventional grid flexibility limits. Pumped Storage Projects (PSPs): Basics What are PSPs? PSPs store electricity by pumping water to an upper reservoir during surplus power periods and generating electricity by releasing it downhill during peak demand hours. Why PSPs matter ? PSPs provide long-duration energy storage (6–10 hours), grid inertia, and rapid ramping, unlike batteries which currently face cost and lifecycle constraints at scale. Current Status of PSPs in India Installed and Planned Capacity India has about 4.8 GW operational PSP capacity, with over 100 GW identified potential, though actual development remains limited due to regulatory and environmental hurdles. CEA’s Storage Vision CEA estimates India will require 336–340 GW of storage by 2047, with pumped storage contributing a dominant share due to scalability and cost efficiency. Key Problem: Environmental and Forest Clearances Clearance-related delays According to CEA, environmental, forest, and wildlife clearances are the primary reasons for slow PSP development, particularly in ecologically sensitive hill regions. Protected and Eco-Sensitive Zones Many viable PSP sites fall within Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) around protected forests, triggering multi-layered approvals and litigation, delaying projects by several years. CEA’s Proposed Easing of Green Norms Differentiation between PSPs and conventional hydro CEA proposes treating off-river and closed-loop PSPs separately, recognising their significantly lower ecological footprint compared to conventional river-diversion hydropower projects. Use of degraded forest land The proposal suggests permitting PSPs on degraded forest land, with compensatory afforestation and biodiversity offsets replacing blanket restrictions. Streamlining approvals PSPs may be granted simplified environmental clearance pathways, excluding them from repeated river-basin and cumulative impact assessments where ecological disruption is minimal. Environmental Impact Assessment: Key Arguments Lower ecological impact Off-river PSPs do not require continuous river flow diversion, resulting in minimal downstream ecological disruption, sediment alteration, or aquatic biodiversity loss. Limited displacement PSPs typically involve smaller submergence areas, reducing large-scale displacement and rehabilitation issues common in conventional hydroelectric projects. Opposition and Environmental Concerns Ecological sensitivity of hill regions Environmental groups argue PSPs in the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and Himalayas threaten fragile ecosystems, landslide-prone slopes, and forest corridors. Cumulative impact risks Critics warn that multiple PSPs in a single region may cause hydrological stress, deforestation, and wildlife habitat fragmentation, undermining conservation goals. Governance and Regulatory Dimensions Balancing climate and conservation goals The debate reflects a policy tension between rapid decarbonisation through renewable integration and constitutional environmental protection under Articles 48A and 51A(g). Institutional coordination challenge PSP approvals require alignment among MoEFCC, State governments, power ministries, and wildlife authorities, often leading to procedural bottlenecks and inconsistent decisions. Economic and Energy Security Implications Grid stability and peak management Accelerated PSP deployment can reduce reliance on coal-based peaking power, cutting emissions and fuel import dependence while stabilising electricity tariffs. Cost competitiveness PSPs offer levelised storage costs lower than lithium-ion batteries for long-duration storage, making them economically attractive for India’s scale requirements. Global Comparisons and Lessons International experience Countries like China, the US, and Japan treat PSPs as strategic grid infrastructure, with streamlined environmental approvals for closed-loop systems. Alignment with global trends India’s proposal aligns with global recognition of PSPs as enablers of renewable energy transition, not traditional large-dam hydro projects. Way Forward: Balanced Policy Approach Environmental safeguards with flexibility Adopt site-specific, science-based clearances, prioritising off-river PSPs, cumulative impact studies, and strict post-construction ecological monitoring. Institutional reforms Create a dedicated PSP clearance framework, separate from conventional hydropower, with time-bound approvals and transparent compensation mechanisms. Core Takeaway Easing green norms for pumped-storage projects reflects India’s attempt to reconcile energy transition imperatives with environmental protection, where nuanced regulation, not blanket restrictions, is key to sustainable decarbonisation. Illegal Electric Fencing and Emerging Threat to Big Cats Why is it in News? In January 2026, a 2.5-year-old male tiger was electrocuted by illegal electric fencing near Valmiki Tiger Reserve, marking the first such recorded incident in Bihar’s only tiger reserve Relevance GS 3 (Environment): Wildlife conservation, human–wildlife conflict, landscape-level conservation beyond protected areas. GS 3 (Biodiversity): Tiger corridors, buffer zones, conservation challenges in human-dominated landscapes. Background and Context Valmiki Tiger Reserve (VTR): Strategic Importance VTR, spread over 899 sq km in West Champaran, Bihar, is the state’s only tiger reserve, bordering Nepal and Uttar Pradesh, forming a critical transboundary tiger landscape. Rising Tiger Population Tiger numbers in VTR increased from 28 (2014) to 54 (2024), a 75% rise, earning NTCA’s “Very Good” category, but also increasing human–wildlife interface pressures. Use of Illegal Power Supply Farmers used unauthorised grid electricity, meant for agriculture and domestic use, to energise fences, making them lethal instead of deterrent. Illegal Electric Fencing: A Growing Conservation Threat Why Farmers Use Electric Fencing Electric fencing is used to deter nilgai, wild boar, and other herbivores damaging rabi crops near forest boundaries, reflecting rising crop-raiding conflicts. Why It Is Dangerous ? Unlike solar-powered low-voltage fences, illegal fencing often carries high-voltage alternating current, causing instant death to large mammals, including tigers and elephants. Tiger Ecology and Human-Dominated Landscapes Movement Beyond Protected Areas Tigers routinely move into buffer zones, corridors, and agricultural fields, especially young dispersing males, increasing exposure to anthropogenic hazards like fences and roads. Landscape-Level Conservation Reality Modern conservation recognises that over 30–40% tiger movement occurs outside core forest areas, making coexistence measures critical beyond reserve boundaries. Recognising Village Commons as a Distinct Land-Use Category Why is it in News? Economic Survey 2025–26 proposes recognising “village commons” as a distinct land-use category, enabling systematic mapping, monitoring, and policy intervention to revive degraded common property resources. Relevance GS 1 (Society): Rural livelihoods, common property resources, social safety nets for landless and marginal groups. GS 2 (Polity & Governance): 73rd Constitutional Amendment, Gram Sabha powers, decentralised resource governance. Background and Conceptual Framework What are Village Commons? Village commons are community-managed Common Property Resources (CPRs) such as grazing lands, ponds, tanks, forests, and wastelands used collectively for fodder, fuel, water, livelihoods, and ecosystem services. Scale and Significance Commons constitute ~15% of India’s geographical area (~6.6 crore hectares), supporting ~35 crore rural people, especially landless households, pastoralists, and marginal farmers. Economic, Social, and Ecological Importance Livelihood and Rural Economy Village commons provide fodder security, fuelwood, water access, minor forest produce, and seasonal employment, acting as a livelihood buffer for vulnerable rural populations. Economic Valuation As per Economic Survey estimates, commons generate an economic dividend of ~USD 9.05 crore annually, though their indirect ecological value remains undercounted in GDP frameworks. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Commons function as biodiversity-rich ecosystems, aiding groundwater recharge, soil conservation, carbon sequestration, and micro-climate regulation. Governance and Institutional Context Current Land-Use Classification Gaps Village commons are often misclassified as wastelands or revenue lands, making them vulnerable to encroachment, diversion, and neglect in planning processes. Decentralised Governance Link Constitutionally, management of commons aligns with 73rd Constitutional Amendment, Gram Sabhas, and Panchayats, but lack of clear legal status weakens local authority. Evidence of Decline and Degradation Land Degradation Trends ISRO’s Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas shows degraded land increased from 94.53 million ha (2003–05) to 97.85 million ha (2018–19), adding ~0.22 million ha annually. Drivers of Degradation Encroachment, overgrazing, unregulated pasture use, declining community institutions, groundwater over-extraction, and absence of sewage treatment in villages accelerate commons’ decline. Why Recognition as a Distinct Category Matters ? Policy and Planning Advantages Formal land-use recognition enables accurate estimation, geo-spatial mapping, targeted funding, and outcome-based monitoring, correcting policy blindness towards commons. Preventing Conversion and Encroachment Legal recognition raises transaction costs for diversion, discourages ad-hoc conversion, and strengthens community claims over shared resources. Best Practices from States Karnataka and Rajasthan Models Multi-tiered institutional frameworks integrating revenue records, GIS mapping, and Panchayat databases have improved identification, protection, and management of commons. Lesson for National Scaling State experiences show that institutional clarity + digital mapping + community involvement improves commons governance. Linkages with National Schemes Ongoing Government Initiatives SVAMITVA Yojana: Drone-based mapping of village lands and commons. Mission Amrit Sarovar: Rejuvenation of village water bodies. PMKSY (Har Khet Ko Pani) & Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Catch The Rain: Restoration of traditional water systems. Need for Convergence Recognised land-use status allows convergence of climate, water, rural livelihood, and land restoration schemes around village commons. Sustainability and SDG Alignment SDG Contributions Commons directly contribute to: SDG 1 (No Poverty) SDG 8 (Decent Work & Livelihoods) SDG 15 (Life on Land) Climate Resilience Revived commons enhance adaptation capacity against droughts, floods, and climate-induced livelihood shocks. Challenges and Risks Institutional Capacity Deficit Panchayats often lack technical, financial, and administrative capacity to manage commons sustainably. Elite Capture and Exclusion Without safeguards, commons risk elite capture, marginalising landless households, women, and pastoral communities. Way Forward: Policy and Governance Reforms Legal and Institutional Measures Formally notify village commons as a land-use category with sub-classifications (pasture, water body, forest commons). Strengthen Gram Sabha authority in management, access rules, and dispute resolution. Technological and Financial Support Use GIS, satellite imagery, and drone surveys for real-time monitoring. Allocate dedicated restoration funds linked to performance outcomes. Community-Centric Approach Invest in capacity-building of local bodies, revive traditional management norms, and integrate women’s SHGs and user groups. Core Takeaway Recognising village commons as a distinct land-use category marks a shift from land as commodity to land as community capital, essential for rural livelihoods, ecological security, and sustainable development in India.