Content
Biopharma SHAKTI & India’s Push into Biologics
Education & Skilling Budget Push
CCUS (Carbon Capture, Utilisation & Storage)
High-Speed Rail Corridors
Cheaper Cancer Drugs & Caregiver Training
Waste-to-Energy (WtE)
Livestock & Fisheries Push
Rakhigarhi & Harappan Heritage
Biopharma SHAKTI & India’s Push into Biologics
Why in News ?
Union Budget 2026–27 announced a ₹10,000 crore Biopharma SHAKTI programme to scale biologics and biosimilars, strengthen CDSCO regulation, and expand NIPER network, signalling strategic push toward biopharma self-reliance.
Relevance
GS-2 (Polity & Governance)
Government policies & interventions in health sector
Regulatory bodies (CDSCO) and reforms
Public health & access to medicines
Centre–State coordination in health governance
GS-3 (Economy, S&T, Internal Security)
Biotechnology & pharma innovation
Industrial policy (PLI, Make in India)
R&D ecosystem and knowledge economy
Biosecurity and dual-use technology risks
Biopharma – Basics
What is Biopharma
Biopharmaceuticals are medicines derived from living organisms like cells or microbes, including vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, gene therapies, unlike small-molecule chemical drugs synthesized through conventional pharmaceutical chemistry.
Biologics vs Biosimilars
Biologics are original complex biological medicines; biosimilars are highly similar follow-on versions with no clinically meaningful differences, offering cost-effective alternatives after reference product patent expiry.
Budget 2026–27 Biopharma SHAKTI – Key Features
Financial Allocation
₹10,000 crore outlay over multiple years targets R&D, manufacturing clusters, clinical ecosystems, regulatory strengthening, aiming to position India as a global biologics manufacturing hub.
Regulatory Strengthening
Focus on upgrading Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation to global regulatory standards, enhancing scientific review capacity, predictable approvals, pharmacovigilance, and harmonisation with WHO/ICH norms.
Institutional Capacity
Proposal to establish three new NIPERs and expand clinical trial infrastructure, creating skilled workforce pipelines for bioprocess engineering, regulatory science, translational research, and innovation-driven pharmaceutical growth.
Rationale Behind the Push
Health Transition
Rising non-communicable diseases like cancer, diabetes, autoimmune disorders increase demand for advanced biologics, which offer targeted therapies and improved outcomes compared to conventional small-molecule drugs.
Economic Opportunity
Global biologics market valued above US$400 billion and growing faster than traditional pharma; capturing biosimilar share can boost exports, high-value manufacturing, skilled employment, and technology upgrading.
Strategic Autonomy
COVID-19 highlighted supply-chain vulnerabilities; domestic biologics capacity strengthens health security, vaccine sovereignty, critical drug resilience, aligning with Atmanirbhar Bharat and Make in India objectives.
Constitutional / Legal Dimension
Aligns with Article 47 duty to improve public health, while regulatory strengthening under Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 framework must ensure safety, efficacy, and ethical clinical practices.
Governance / Administrative Dimension
Requires coordination between DBT, ICMR, CDSCO, state regulators, streamlined single-window approvals, and stronger bioethics oversight committees to maintain credibility in clinical research ecosystems.
Economic Dimension
Biopharma shift supports move from volume-driven generics to value-driven innovation, enhancing gross value addition, export competitiveness, and integration into global pharmaceutical value chains.
Social / Ethical Dimension
Biosimilars can reduce therapy costs by 20–40% globally, improving affordability; however, ethical concerns around clinical trials, informed consent, and data integrity require strict oversight.
Environmental / Tech / Security Dimension
Biomanufacturing demands high bio-safety, waste management, cold-chain logistics, and digital bioprocess control systems; dual-use biotechnology risks necessitate strong biosecurity frameworks.
Data & Evidence
India supplies ~20% of global generic medicines by volume but small biologics share; biologics contribute disproportionately to global pharma revenues, showing clear upgrading potential.
India hosts 3,000+ pharma companies and 10,000+ manufacturing units, providing strong base for biologics scaling if supported by advanced biologics infrastructure and regulatory credibility.
Challenges / Gaps
High capital intensity and long gestation periods deter private investment without risk-sharing or incentives, limiting domestic innovation beyond contract manufacturing and licensed biosimilar production.
Regulatory unpredictability and limited reviewer capacity in biologics evaluation can delay approvals, affecting investor confidence and global acceptance of Indian biologics.
Skilled workforce gaps in bioprocessing, regulatory science, and translational research constrain movement toward innovation-led biologics ecosystems.
Fragmented industry–academia linkages reduce commercialization of research outputs, weakening innovation pipeline despite strong basic science institutions.
Way Forward
Expand PLI-like incentives for biologics, encourage public–private partnerships, and create shared biomanufacturing facilities to reduce entry barriers for domestic firms.
Strengthen regulatory science ecosystem through international collaborations, joint reviews, and continuous training to build globally trusted approval systems.
Promote innovation clusters linking NIPERs, IITs, startups, and hospitals for translational research and faster lab-to-market pathways.
Ensure ethical clinical trial frameworks, patient registries, and real-world evidence systems to build credibility and safety assurance.
Data & Facts
India is the largest vaccine supplier globally, providing ~60% of global vaccine demand (UNICEF/WHO procurement).
India accounts for ~20% of global generic drug exports by volume but <5% share in global biologics market, showing value-upgradation potential.
Biologics constitute ~30–35% of global pharma market value but much smaller share in volume → high-value segment.
USFDA-approved pharma plants: India has the highest number outside the USA (600+ facilities).
R&D spending in Indian pharma ≈ 7–8% of revenue, lower than global innovators (15–20%), showing innovation gap.
India’s bioeconomy crossed $80–90 billion and targets $300 billion by 2030 (DBT vision).
Education & Skilling Budget Push
Why in News ?
Union Budget 2026–27 significantly raises education and skilling allocations to about ₹1.39 lakh crore (≈14.21% increase), alongside reforms linking education-to-employment pathways, signalling human-capital–led growth strategy.
Relevance
GS-2 – Polity & Governance / Social Justice (Education)
Education policies & NEP 2020
Article 21A, DPSPs
Welfare state & human capital
Social sector governance
GS-3 – Economy (Human Capital & Employment)
Demographic dividend
Skill mismatch & employability
Labour productivity & growth
Future of work & AI impact
Education & Skilling Push – Basics
Human Capital Logic
Human capital theory (Schultz, Becker) views education and skills as productivity-enhancing investments, improving employability, incomes, innovation capacity, and long-term demographic dividend realization in a young country like India.
Education–Employment Link
Persistent skill mismatch and graduate unemployability necessitate aligning curricula with industry demand, integrating vocational exposure, apprenticeships, and digital skills to convert schooling into productive workforce participation.
Budget 2026–27 – Key Announcements
Higher Allocation
Education Ministry outlay ≈ ₹1.39 lakh crore, reflecting prioritisation of school education, higher education, and digital learning ecosystems, reversing pandemic-era learning losses and strengthening foundational literacy and numeracy.
Samagra Shiksha
Samagra Shiksha allocation increased, supporting FLN under NIPUN Bharat, school infrastructure, teacher training, and inclusive education, aligning with NEP 2020’s holistic school framework.
Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan
KVS funding rise (~₹600 crore increase) expands access to quality schooling for mobile populations, defence families, and aspirational districts, promoting equity and standardized public education quality.
Atal Tinkering Labs
ATL allocation jumps from ~₹500 crore to ~₹2,700 crore, strengthening STEM, innovation culture, and early problem-solving exposure, nurturing future-ready skills and startup-oriented mindsets among students.
University Townships
Proposal for five university townships integrates academia, research parks, and industry clusters, aiming to replicate global knowledge hubs and enhance research–industry linkages and local economic ecosystems.
Skill Development Push
Skill Development Ministry outlay ≈ ₹8,885 crore supports PM Skill Development, apprenticeships, and industry-aligned training, targeting employability and formal workforce integration.
Education-to-Employment Panel
Expert panel to design pathways from education to employment, focusing on curriculum redesign, internships, entrepreneurship support, and AI-era skills forecasting for dynamic labour markets.
Constitutional / Legal Dimension
Advances Article 21A (Right to Education) and Directive Principles (Article 41, 45), reinforcing state duty toward education, skill-building, and opportunities for work under welfare-state constitutional vision.
Governance / Administrative Dimension
Requires convergence among MoE, MSDE, state governments, NCERT, Sector Skill Councils, and robust outcome-based monitoring, avoiding duplication across centrally sponsored and state schemes.
Economic Dimension
India’s median age ≈ 28 years offers demographic advantage; education–skilling investments raise labour productivity, female workforce participation, and formalisation, supporting sustained 8%+ growth aspirations.
Social / Ethical Dimension
Improved public education spending reduces intergenerational inequality, supports social mobility, and addresses rural–urban, gender, and socio-economic disparities in access to quality learning and skills.
Tech / Future of Work Dimension
AI and automation threaten routine jobs; policy emphasis on digital literacy, coding, AI, and design thinking prepares workforce for Industry 4.0 and gig economy realities.
Data & Evidence
ASER reports show persistent learning gaps post-pandemic; only a fraction of youth receive formal vocational training compared to 50–60% in developed economies, justifying higher skilling investments.
PLFS data repeatedly highlights educated-youth unemployment, indicating degree–job mismatch, reinforcing need for vocational integration and industry-linked curricula.
Challenges / Gaps
Quality of spending remains concern; higher allocations may not translate into outcomes without teacher capacity, governance reforms, and accountability mechanisms.
Fragmented skilling ecosystem and low industry participation limit placement outcomes, reducing credibility of short-term certification-based training programmes.
Digital divide and unequal state capacities risk regional disparities in translating central allocations into actual learning and employment gains.
Way Forward
Shift from input-based to outcome-based financing, linking funds with measurable learning and placement outcomes through transparent dashboards and third-party audits.
Deepen apprenticeship reforms, incentivise MSMEs for trainee absorption, and embed vocational exposure within secondary education under NEP 2020.
Build district-level skill mapping aligned with local economic clusters, ensuring context-specific training and reducing migration distress.
Strengthen teacher training and EdTech integration, combining technology with pedagogy rather than substituting human instruction.
Data & Facts
India has the world’s largest youth population (~65% below 35 years).
Only ~5% of India’s workforce has formal vocational training, vs 50–60% in developed countries.
ASER reports: basic reading and arithmetic levels still below pre-pandemic levels in many states.
India spends ~4–4.5% of GDP on education, below NEP target of 6%.
Female LFPR improving (~37%+) but still below global average, skilling critical for women’s employment.
World Bank estimates one additional year of schooling raises earnings by ~8–10%.
CCUS (Carbon Capture, Utilisation & Storage)
Why in News ?
Union Budget 2026–27 earmarks ₹20,000 crore for a national Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) scheme, signalling India’s intent to deploy deep-decarbonisation tools for hard-to-abate industrial sectors.
Relevance
GS-3 – Environment / Economy / Science & Tech
Climate change mitigation
Clean energy transition
Environmental technologies
Carbon markets & green economy
GS-2 – International Relations / Global Agreements
Paris Agreement & CBDR
Global climate governance
CCUS – Basics
What is CCUS ?
CCUS involves capturing CO₂ at source, compressing and transporting it for utilisation in products or permanent geological storage, preventing atmospheric release from fossil-fuel-intensive industrial activities.
How it Works ?
Process includes post-combustion or pre-combustion capture, pipeline or ship-based CO₂ transport, and injection into saline aquifers, depleted oil fields, or mineralisation systems for long-term containment.
Budget Scheme – Key Features
Financial Commitment
₹20,000 crore allocation provides catalytic funding for pilot projects, viability-gap support, and infrastructure creation, recognising CCUS as capital-intensive but essential for achieving net-zero by 2070 commitments.
Sectoral Focus
Priority given to steel, cement, fertilisers, refineries, and thermal power, where process emissions are unavoidable and electrification alternatives remain technologically or economically constrained in the medium term.
Design Approach
Emphasis on retrofit integration in existing facilities rather than greenfield-only plants, reducing transition costs, preserving assets, and enabling faster emissions reduction within India’s current industrial base.
Technology Development
Scheme promotes indigenous R&D, demonstration plants, and shared transport-storage networks, aiming to build domestic technological capability and reduce long-term dependence on imported climate technologies.
Rationale Behind CCUS Push
Climate Commitments
India’s Panchamrit targets include emissions-intensity reduction and net-zero by 2070; CCUS offers pathway for deep decarbonisation where renewables alone cannot fully eliminate industrial emissions.
Energy Transition Reality
Coal still contributes major electricity share; CCUS enables cleaner fossil fuel use during transition, balancing developmental needs with climate responsibility under Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) principle.
Global Policy Trends
Countries like USA, UK, Norway incentivise CCUS through tax credits and carbon markets; India’s move aligns with emerging carbon border adjustment pressures and global green competitiveness norms.
Constitutional / Legal Dimension
Supports Article 48A environmental protection duty and Article 21 right to life via pollution reduction, while future legal frameworks must regulate liability, monitoring, and long-term storage risks.
Governance / Administrative Dimension
Requires coordination among MoEFCC, DST, Ministry of Power, and state pollution boards, plus robust MRV systems (Monitoring, Reporting, Verification) to ensure captured carbon is permanently contained.
Economic Dimension
CCUS can protect energy-intensive export sectors from carbon tariffs, preserve jobs, and create new value chains in carbon-based products, enhanced oil recovery, and green construction materials.
Environmental Dimension
Potential to reduce large-volume industrial emissions, yet lifecycle assessments must ensure net-negative outcomes, avoiding energy-intensive capture processes that indirectly increase fossil fuel consumption.
Technology / Security Dimension
CO₂ pipelines and storage sites require leak-proof infrastructure, seismic assessments, and cybersecurity for digital monitoring systems, as accidental releases could undermine climate and safety objectives.
Data & Evidence
IEA estimates global net-zero pathways require capturing 7–8 gigatonnes CO₂ annually by 2050, while current deployment remains below 10% of required scale, showing large expansion necessity.
India’s steel and cement sectors together contribute significant industrial emissions share, making them prime candidates where CCUS yields high marginal abatement impact compared to incremental efficiency improvements.
Challenges / Gaps
High capture costs (often US$40–100 per tonne globally) and uncertain carbon pricing reduce private-sector enthusiasm without predictable policy incentives or carbon-market integration.
Long-term storage liability, leakage risks, and public acceptance concerns create regulatory and social hurdles, requiring transparent risk communication and strict environmental safeguards.
CCUS may risk moral hazard by prolonging fossil-fuel dependence if not paired with renewable expansion and efficiency improvements.
Way Forward
Develop carbon markets and pricing signals to make CCUS financially viable, integrating it with India’s emerging Carbon Credit Trading Scheme framework.
Create CCUS clusters near industrial hubs and sedimentary basins, lowering transport costs and enabling shared infrastructure for multiple emitters.
Encourage international technology partnerships and climate finance to de-risk early investments and accelerate learning curves.
Ensure CCUS complements, not substitutes, renewable expansion and energy efficiency, maintaining balanced decarbonisation strategy.
Data & Facts
CCUS currently captures ~45–50 million tonnes CO₂/year globally, while net-zero pathways need gigatonne-scale capture.
IEA: CCUS required for ~15% of cumulative emissions reduction by 2070 globally.
Steel and cement together contribute ~15–18% of global CO₂ emissions.
Norway’s Longship project is a flagship national CCUS model.
IPCC recognises CCUS as essential for hard-to-abate sectors.
India is the 3rd largest CO₂ emitter, but per-capita emissions remain far below developed nations.
High-Speed Rail Corridors
Why in News ?
Union Budget 2026–27 grants approval to seven high-speed rail corridors spanning about 4,000 km with planned ₹16 lakh crore outlay, aimed at accelerating regional connectivity and economic integration.
Relevance
GS-3 – Infrastructure / Economy
Transport infrastructure
Logistics efficiency
Investment & growth multipliers
Low-carbon mobility
High-Speed Rail – Basics
Concept
High-Speed Rail (HSR) refers to passenger rail systems operating generally above 250 km/h on dedicated tracks, using advanced signalling, grade separation, and aerodynamic rolling stock for speed, safety, and reliability.
Global Context
Countries like Japan, China, France demonstrate HSR’s role in reducing air-road congestion, cutting travel time, boosting regional economies, and enabling low-carbon mass mobility transitions.
Budget Announcement – Key Features
Identified Corridors
Corridors include Mumbai–Pune, Pune–Hyderabad, Hyderabad–Bengaluru, Hyderabad–Chennai, Chennai–Bengaluru, Delhi–Varanasi, Varanasi–Siliguri, linking major economic, cultural, and demographic growth centres.
Financial Scale
Estimated ₹16 lakh crore investment signals long-term infrastructure commitment, crowding-in private and multilateral finance, and positioning railways as backbone of India’s future transport and logistics architecture.
Travel Time Reduction
Expected to reduce inter-city travel to 2–3 hours on many routes, with some segments targeting sub-one-hour connectivity, reshaping business travel, tourism flows, and labour mobility patterns.
Railway Capex Push
Railways receive ₹2.78 lakh crore+ capital outlay, reflecting prioritisation of network modernisation, safety, capacity augmentation, and technological upgrading alongside dedicated freight and passenger corridors.
Rationale Behind HSR Push
Economic Multiplier
Large rail projects generate high forward–backward linkages in steel, cement, electronics, construction, and services, supporting job creation and regional industrial ecosystems during construction and operation phases.
Urbanisation & Mobility
Rapid urbanisation requires efficient inter-city mobility; HSR enables polycentric urban growth, reducing megacity pressure and promoting satellite-city development along transport corridors.
Energy & Climate Logic
Electrified HSR has lower per-capita emissions than aviation and highways, supporting India’s climate goals and reducing fossil-fuel import dependence in the transport sector.
Constitutional / Legal Dimension
Advances cooperative federalism under Union–State infrastructure coordination, while land acquisition must respect RFCTLARR Act 2013, ensuring fair compensation, consent, and rehabilitation safeguards.
Governance / Administrative Dimension
Requires strong project management, inter-ministerial coordination, and institutional capacity in Indian Railways, NHSRCL, state agencies, with transparent procurement and time-bound execution to avoid cost overruns.
Economic Dimension
Improved connectivity can raise regional productivity, tourism revenues, real estate development, and supply-chain efficiency, contributing to sustained high-growth trajectory and logistics cost reduction.
Social / Ethical Dimension
Better connectivity improves access to opportunities, education, healthcare, yet displacement, land conflicts, and fare affordability concerns require inclusive planning and stakeholder consultations.
Technology / Security Dimension
HSR depends on advanced signalling, Kavach-based safety systems, automatic train control, and cyber-secure digital networks, making technological reliability and data security critical national priorities.
Environmental Dimension
While rail is greener than road or air, construction impacts on forests, wildlife corridors, and land use necessitate rigorous EIAs, mitigation plans, and compensatory afforestation.
Data & Evidence
Rail is among the most energy-efficient transport modes; globally, HSR corridors often shift significant passenger share from aviation on 300–800 km routes, reducing congestion and emissions.
India’s logistics costs remain around 13–14% of GDP; faster, efficient rail networks can structurally reduce these costs, enhancing export competitiveness.
Challenges / Gaps
High capital intensity and long gestation risk fiscal stress and delays, especially with complex land acquisition and multi-state coordination requirements.
Ensuring commercial viability and adequate ridership is critical; poorly estimated demand could burden public finances and reduce cost-effectiveness.
Technology dependence on foreign partners may limit domestic value addition without strong localisation and technology-transfer frameworks.
Way Forward
Adopt phased implementation prioritising high-demand corridors, ensuring financial sustainability and early success demonstration.
Promote Make in India for rolling stock and signalling, enhancing domestic manufacturing and technology absorption.
Integrate HSR with multimodal transport planning, including metro, bus, and airports for seamless last-mile connectivity.
Ensure transparent cost–benefit analysis and public communication to build trust and social acceptance.
Data & Facts
Japan’s Shinkansen has operated since 1964 with near-zero fatal accidents → global safety benchmark.
Rail emits up to 70–80% less CO₂ per passenger-km than aviation (IEA estimates).
Infrastructure multiplier: ₹1 spent can generate ₹2–2.5 economic output (various infrastructure studies).
China built 40,000+ km HSR network, linking regional growth clusters.
India’s logistics cost 13–14% of GDP vs 8–9% in developed countries.
Cheaper Cancer Drugs & Caregiver Training
Why in News ?
Union Budget 2026–27 announces customs duty exemption on 17 cancer-related drugs, addition of 7 rare diseases to concessional import list, and training of 1.5 lakh caregivers, signalling targeted health-sector relief.
Relevance
GS-2 – Social Justice / Health
Public health policy
Access to medicines
Welfare schemes
Right to health dimension
GS-3 – Economy (Health Sector)
Pharma industry
Health workforce economics
Social sector expenditure
Context & Basics
Cancer & Rare Diseases in India
India witnesses rising cancer burden and significant rare disease treatment gaps, driven by high drug costs, import dependence, limited domestic R&D, and shortage of trained caregiving and allied health workforce.
Caregiver Role
Caregivers provide long-term physical, emotional, and rehabilitative support, especially critical for oncology, geriatrics, and chronic diseases, reducing hospital load and improving treatment adherence and outcomes.
Budget Announcements – Key Features
Cheaper Cancer Drugs
Full customs duty exemption on 17 cancer-related drugs and medicines lowers import costs, improving affordability for patients undergoing long-term, high-cost oncology treatment.
Rare Diseases Support
Seven additional rare diseases included in duty-free import list for drugs, medicines, and special foods for personal use, expanding coverage under India’s evolving rare disease policy ecosystem.
Caregiver Training
1.5 lakh caregivers to be trained under National Skills Qualifications Framework (NSQF), integrating skills like wellness, yoga, basic medical operations, assistive devices, strengthening community-level healthcare support.
Health Expenditure Snapshot
Health Ministry allocation ≈ ₹1.05 lakh crore for FY 2026–27, reflecting modest growth (~6–9%), with prioritisation of targeted relief over large headline expansion.
Rationale Behind the Measures
Affordability & Access
High out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPE) in cancer care pushes families into poverty; tax exemptions directly reduce treatment costs where domestic alternatives are unavailable.
Demographic & Epidemiological Transition
Ageing population and rising NCD prevalence increase demand for long-term care and palliative services, necessitating trained caregiver workforce beyond doctors and nurses.
Health System Efficiency
Trained caregivers enable task shifting, reduce doctor overload, shorten hospital stays, and strengthen continuum of care from hospitals to homes.
Constitutional / Legal Dimension
Advances Article 21 (Right to Life) through improved access to essential medicines and care, and aligns with Article 47 directing the State to improve public health and nutrition.
Governance / Administrative Dimension
Requires coordination among MoHFW, MSDE, Customs authorities, state health departments, and standardised certification under NSQF to ensure quality, safety, and portability of caregiver skills.
Economic Dimension
Reduced drug costs ease catastrophic health expenditure, while caregiver skilling creates health-sector employment, especially for women, supporting inclusive growth and service-sector expansion.
Social / Ethical Dimension
Improves equity in access to life-saving drugs for cancer and rare diseases; ethical imperative to support vulnerable patients with limited treatment alternatives.
Formal recognition of caregivers enhances dignity of care work, often undervalued and informal.
Health System / Technology Dimension
Complements expansion of clinical trial sites, drug regulatory strengthening, and allied health professional scaling, moving toward team-based, technology-supported care models.
Data & Evidence
Cancer treatment can cost several lakhs per year, with medicines forming a major share of OOPE; duty exemptions can meaningfully reduce end prices for imported therapies.
India faces a shortage of allied health professionals relative to demand, particularly in geriatrics, oncology support, and home-based care.
Challenges / Gaps
Modest overall health budget growth limits systemic expansion of public healthcare infrastructure.
Duty exemptions help only imported drugs; absence of domestic manufacturing keeps long-term costs vulnerable to exchange-rate and supply shocks.
Caregiver training must ensure quality control, supervision, and ethical standards to avoid unsafe task shifting.
Way Forward
Incentivise domestic production of oncology and rare-disease drugs through R&D grants, PLI-like schemes, and faster regulatory approvals.
Integrate trained caregivers into Ayushman Bharat–PMJAY, geriatric care, and palliative care programmes for institutional linkage and demand certainty.
Expand public oncology infrastructure and early screening to complement drug affordability measures.
Establish clear legal scope of practice for caregivers, ensuring patient safety and professional accountability.
Data & Facts
Cancer cases in India projected to cross 1.5 million annually (ICMR estimates).
OOPE still forms ~48–50% of total health expenditure in India, among highest globally.
Rare diseases affect ~70–90 million Indians (estimated).
India has doctor–population ratio ~1:1500 (below WHO ideal 1:1000) → need allied workforce.
Palliative care access remains limited; only ~1–2% of those in need receive it.
Waste-to-Energy (WtE)
Why in News ?
Urban India’s rising solid waste burden, landfill crises, and policy push under Solid Waste Management Rules 2016 (amended) have renewed focus on Waste-to-Energy (WtE) as a waste-processing and energy-recovery solution.
Relevance
GS-3 – Environment / Ecology
Solid waste management
Pollution control
Circular economy
Renewable energy debates
GS-2 – Governance (Local Bodies)
Urban Local Bodies’ role
Environmental regulation
Waste-to-Energy – Basics
Definition
Waste-to-Energy (WtE) converts non-recyclable solid waste into usable energy—electricity, heat, or fuel through thermal, chemical, or biological processes, reducing landfill volumes while recovering embedded energy from waste streams.
Major Technologies
Incineration burns waste at high temperatures for steam-electricity generation; gasification/pyrolysis convert waste into syngas with limited oxygen; anaerobic digestion uses microbes to produce biogas from organic waste.
Policy & Regulatory Framework
Solid Waste Management Rules
SWM Rules 2016 mandate source segregation, scientific processing, and RDF promotion, positioning WtE as a residual-waste treatment option after recycling and composting to reduce landfill dependency.
Institutional Ecosystem
MoHUA, CPCB, State Pollution Control Boards, ULBs regulate and monitor WtE plants, setting emission norms, environmental clearances, and compliance standards for air pollutants and ash disposal.
Rationale for WtE Push
Urbanisation & Waste Surge
India generates ~1.5–1.7 lakh tonnes of MSW daily, projected to rise with urbanisation and consumption; WtE offers volume reduction and partial energy recovery from otherwise landfilled waste.
Land Scarcity
Megacities face landfill saturation and land constraints; WtE can reduce waste volume up to ~80–90%, extending landfill life and easing urban land-use pressures.
Climate Link
Diverting waste from dumpsites reduces methane emissions, a potent greenhouse gas; controlled combustion with safeguards can be climatically preferable to open dumping and burning.
Constitutional / Legal Dimension
Supports Article 48A environmental protection and Article 21 right to clean environment, while invoking polluter pays and precautionary principles recognised in Indian environmental jurisprudence.
Governance / Administrative Dimension
Effective WtE requires strict segregation at source, reliable feedstock quality, long-term municipal contracts, and credible monitoring capacity, often weak across Urban Local Bodies with fiscal and technical constraints.
Economic Dimension
WtE plants are capital-intensive with high operating costs; financial viability depends on tipping fees, power tariffs, and assured waste supply agreements, raising concerns over long-term fiscal sustainability.
Environmental Dimension
Poorly managed WtE emits dioxins, furans, particulate matter, heavy metals; safe operation demands advanced flue-gas treatment, continuous emission monitoring, and scientific ash disposal.
Social / Ethical Dimension
Informal waste pickers risk livelihood loss if recyclable streams divert to incineration; inclusive policy must integrate them into segregation, recycling value chains, and formal waste management systems.
Technology Dimension
Indian waste has high moisture and low calorific value due to organic content, reducing incineration efficiency; technological adaptation and better segregation are critical for optimal plant performance.
Data & Evidence
India has 20+ WtE plants and over 100 biogas facilities operational; several plants historically faced shutdowns due to poor segregation, community opposition, and emission concerns.
Studies show recycling often saves more energy and emissions than incineration, supporting the waste hierarchy prioritising reduce–reuse–recycle before recovery.
Challenges / Gaps
Mixed waste collection undermines calorific value and raises pollution risks, making many WtE projects technologically and environmentally suboptimal.
Community resistance arises from health concerns, siting issues, and trust deficits regarding emission compliance and monitoring transparency.
Overemphasis on WtE may create perverse incentives to burn recyclables, discouraging circular-economy practices like composting and material recovery.
Way Forward
Enforce strict source segregation and decentralised composting for wet waste, reserving WtE only for non-recyclable, high-calorific residual fractions consistent with waste-hierarchy principles.
Strengthen real-time emission monitoring, public disclosure, and third-party audits to build trust and ensure environmental compliance.
Integrate informal workers into formal systems through MRFs, cooperatives, and social security, ensuring just transition.
Promote circular economy policies, EPR, and waste reduction to address root causes rather than relying solely on end-of-pipe solutions.
Data & Facts
India generates ~55–60 million tonnes MSW annually, projected to double by 2030.
~70–75% waste remains unsegregated in many cities.
Methane from landfills has 28x higher warming potential than CO₂ (IPCC).
EU waste hierarchy prioritises: Reduce → Reuse → Recycle → Recover → Dispose.
Sweden imports waste for energy due to advanced segregation and WtE systems.
Livestock & Fisheries Push
Why in News ?
Union Budget 2026–27 announces higher allocations and new schemes for livestock and fisheries, focusing on value-chain development, entrepreneurship, and rural employment, signalling diversification of farm incomes beyond crop agriculture.
Relevance
GS-3 – Agriculture / Economy
Allied agriculture sectors
Blue economy
Food processing & exports
Rural income diversification
GS-2 – Governance / Welfare
Farmer welfare policies
Institutional credit systems
Sector Basics
Livestock Sector
Livestock includes dairy, poultry, sheep-goat, and allied activities, contributing significantly to agricultural GVA, nutrition security, and supplementary farmer incomes, especially for smallholders and landless households.
Fisheries Sector
Fisheries span marine, inland, and aquaculture systems, supporting coastal and inland livelihoods, exports, and protein supply, with India among the top global fish producers.
Budget Announcements – Key Features
Fisheries Push
Enhanced outlay for Fisheries Ministry (~₹2,761.8 crore), supporting one of the world’s largest inland reservoir networks (~31.5 lakh hectares), targeting value addition, infrastructure, and export competitiveness.
Value-Chain Development
Focus on cold chains, processing, storage, and market linkages, aiming to reduce post-harvest losses and increase farmer realisation across fisheries and animal husbandry value chains.
Entrepreneurship & Start-ups
Promotion of start-ups, women-led groups, and FPOs in fisheries and livestock, integrating them into formal value chains and improving access to credit, technology, and markets.
Animal Husbandry Allocation
Animal Husbandry Ministry allocation (~₹6,153.46 crore), reflecting ~21% increase, directed toward breed improvement, veterinary services, and disease prevention initiatives.
Credit-Linked Support
Push for entrepreneurship via credit-linked subsidy schemes, encouraging private investment in dairy units, hatcheries, feed mills, and processing enterprises.
Rationale Behind the Push
Income Diversification
Non-crop sectors stabilise farm incomes against monsoon and price volatility, supporting the policy goal of doubling farmers’ income through diversification.
Nutrition Security
Livestock and fish provide high-quality protein and micronutrients, addressing malnutrition and dietary diversity concerns highlighted in nutrition surveys.
Export Potential
Marine products are major agri-exports; value addition and quality compliance can boost foreign exchange earnings and global competitiveness.
Constitutional / Legal Dimension
Aligns with Article 48 directive to improve animal husbandry on scientific lines and Article 47 on nutrition and public health.
Governance / Administrative Dimension
Implementation requires coordination among DAHD, Department of Fisheries, state veterinary services, MPEDA, NABARD, and robust disease surveillance and extension systems.
Economic Dimension
Livestock contributes around 30%+ of agricultural GVA in recent years; strengthening these sectors enhances rural employment, MSME growth, and value-added exports.
Social / Ethical Dimension
Livestock and fisheries support women’s economic participation and livelihoods of marginal communities; ethical issues include animal welfare and sustainable fishing practices.
Environmental Dimension
Overfishing, habitat degradation, and livestock methane emissions pose sustainability concerns; policies must integrate sustainable aquaculture, breed management, and climate-smart practices.
Technology Dimension
Adoption of genetic improvement, vaccines, IoT-based monitoring, and modern feed practices can raise productivity and reduce disease and mortality risks.
Data & Evidence
India ranks among the largest milk and fish producers globally; fisheries exports have crossed billions of dollars annually, reflecting strong global demand.
Post-harvest losses in fisheries and perishables remain high without cold-chain infrastructure, justifying logistics investments.
Challenges / Gaps
Disease outbreaks (e.g., in poultry or cattle) can cause large income shocks; veterinary infrastructure and surveillance remain uneven across states.
Fragmented supply chains and limited processing capacity reduce farmer share in consumer prices.
Environmental stress and climate variability threaten fish stocks and fodder availability.
Way Forward
Strengthen cold-chain and processing infrastructure through PPP models and viability-gap funding.
Expand animal health coverage, vaccination drives, and digital livestock registries for traceability and disease control.
Promote sustainable fisheries management—regulated catch, aquaculture standards, and habitat conservation.
Integrate farmers into FPOs and cooperatives to improve bargaining power and market access.
Data & Facts
Livestock contributes ~30%+ to agricultural GVA, higher than crops in some years.
India is largest milk producer globally.
Fisheries sector grows at ~8–10% annually, among fastest in agriculture.
Marine exports cross $7–8 billion annually.
Protein deficiency remains concern; per capita protein intake below global norms.
FAO: aquaculture is the fastest-growing food production sector globally.
Rakhigarhi & Harappan Heritage
Why in News ?
Union Budget 2026–27 proposes developing Rakhigarhi, a major Harappan civilisation site in Haryana, as a cultural-tourism hub, but local concerns over slow progress and land issues triggered public dissatisfaction.
Relevance
GS-1 – History & Culture
Indus Valley civilisation
Archaeology & heritage
Art & culture
GS-2 – Governance / Culture
Heritage conservation policy
Role of ASI & legislation
Rakhigarhi – Basics
Location & Identity
Rakhigarhi, located in Hisar district, Haryana, is among the largest Harappan (Indus Valley) sites in the means subcontinent, often compared with Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in scale and complexity.
Chronology
Site dates roughly to 2600–1900 BCE (Mature Harappan phase), with evidence of earlier and later cultural layers, helping reconstruct the evolution and decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Archaeological Significance
Excavations revealed planned streets, drainage systems, craft production areas, burials, and artefacts, indicating advanced urban planning, trade networks, and social organisation typical of Harappan culture.
Key Budget & Policy Announcement
Heritage Development Push
Government proposes integrated site development, museum creation, and tourism infrastructure to convert Rakhigarhi into a global heritage destination, linking conservation with local economic opportunities.
Part of Wider Revamp
Rakhigarhi included in plan to revamp multiple archaeological sites, reflecting policy shift toward heritage-led development and cultural tourism as soft-power and local-growth instruments.
Historical & Cultural Importance
Civilisational Value
Rakhigarhi strengthens understanding that Harappan civilisation extended deep into present-day India, countering earlier Pakistan-centric geographic perception and enriching India’s civilisational narrative.
Knowledge Contributions
Findings on diet, burial practices, pottery, metallurgy, and settlement patterns provide insights into Harappan lifestyle, trade, and social differentiation, valuable for archaeology and ancient history studies.
Constitutional / Legal Dimension
Conservation aligns with Article 49 obligating State to protect monuments of national importance and with Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 governing protected heritage sites.
Governance / Administrative Dimension
Development requires coordination among ASI, State Government, Tourism Ministry, and local administration, balancing heritage protection, land acquisition, rehabilitation, and community participation.
Economic Dimension
Heritage tourism can generate local employment, MSME growth, hospitality demand, and rural infrastructure, turning archaeological assets into sustainable economic multipliers for surrounding communities.
Social / Ethical Dimension
Local resistance arises when communities perceive displacement risks, inadequate compensation, or exclusion from benefits, highlighting need for participatory and inclusive heritage-development models.
Cultural Diplomacy / Soft Power
Showcasing Harappan heritage strengthens India’s civilisational diplomacy, global academic collaborations, and cultural branding, similar to how Egypt leverages ancient heritage for soft power.
Data & Evidence
Rakhigarhi spreads across multiple mounds over large area, making it one of the most extensive Harappan sites; DNA and material studies from the site informed debates on Harappan origins.
Challenges / Gaps
Slow excavation pace, funding constraints, and conservation delays reduce research potential and public trust in development promises.
Encroachments and agricultural activity risk site degradation, threatening stratigraphic integrity and long-term archaeological value.
Over-commercialisation may compromise authenticity and scientific conservation if tourism priorities overshadow archaeological protocols.
Way Forward
Adopt community-based heritage management, ensuring locals gain from tourism via jobs, homestays, and services, building local stewardship for conservation.
Increase archaeological funding, scientific excavation, and digital documentation using GIS, 3D mapping, and residue analysis for global-standard research.
Develop site museums and interpretation centres for public education, linking Rakhigarhi with broader Harappan heritage circuits.
Data & Facts
Rakhigarhi spans ~350 hectares+, making it among the largest Harappan sites.
Indus Valley Civilisation covered ~1.3 million sq km, larger than Egypt & Mesopotamia combined.
Harappans used standardised bricks (1:2:4 ratio) → advanced civil engineering.
No monumental temples/palaces found → suggests relatively egalitarian urban planning.
DNA studies show complex indigenous population history without simplistic invasion narratives.