Content
Compressed Biogas (CBG) from Municipal Waste: Kochi Brahmapuram Plant
The quiet demographic revolution unfolding in India
India ranks second globally in childhood obesity: study
Website Blocking in India: Governance, Legal Issues and Internet Freedom
On India’s fighter jet acquisitions
Rupee Depreciation and Its Impact on India’s Economy, IT Sector and Exports
NCERT Textbook Drafting Controversy and Debate on Judiciary Representation
Compressed Biogas (CBG) from Municipal Waste: Kochi Brahmapuram Plant
Why This Issue is in News?
Kerala’s first Compressed Biogas (CBG) plant has become operational at the Brahmapuram waste treatment yard in Kochi, transforming a site previously associated with the devastating Brahmapuram landfill fire of March 2023.
The project represents a shift from traditional landfill-based waste management toward waste-to-energy and circular economy approaches, converting biodegradable municipal solid waste into biogas and organic manure.
The plant is part of broader efforts to address urban waste crises, reduce landfill fires, cut greenhouse gas emissions and promote renewable energy generation, aligning with India’s climate and energy transition goals.
Relevance
GS Paper 3 – Environment & Ecology
Municipal Solid Waste Management
Waste-to-Energy technologies
Climate change mitigation (methane reduction)
Circular economy
GS Paper 3 – Energy
Bioenergy and renewable fuels
Biofuel policy (SATAT initiative)
Mains Practice Question
Q1.Waste-to-energy technologies are increasingly promoted as a solution to India’s urban waste crisis.
Discuss the potential and limitations of Compressed Biogas (CBG) plants in achieving sustainable waste management. (15 marks)
Static Background: Municipal Solid Waste Management in India
Rapid urbanisation and rising consumption patterns have significantly increased municipal solid waste (MSW) generation in Indian cities, creating major environmental and public health challenges.
India generates approximately 1.5–1.7 lakh tonnes of municipal solid waste per day, of which nearly 50–60% is biodegradable organic waste, suitable for biological treatment methods such as composting and anaerobic digestion.
Poor waste segregation, limited processing infrastructure and reliance on open dumping have historically resulted in landfill fires, methane emissions and groundwater contamination.
Environmental Context: The Brahmapuram Fire
In March 2023, a massive fire erupted at the Brahmapuram waste yard near Kochi, where decades of accumulated plastic and non-biodegradable waste ignited, releasing toxic smoke across the city.
The fire significantly deteriorated air quality and public health conditions, with hundreds of residents reporting respiratory illnesses and environmental contamination.
The incident exposed systemic weaknesses in urban waste management systems, prompting urgent reforms in waste processing infrastructure.
Conceptual Foundations: Compressed Biogas (CBG)
Compressed Biogas (CBG) is a purified form of biogas produced through anaerobic digestion of organic waste, where microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen.
Raw biogas typically contains 45–50% methane, 35–45% carbon dioxide and trace hydrogen sulphide, which are removed during purification to increase methane concentration.
After purification and compression, CBG becomes chemically similar to compressed natural gas (CNG) and can be used as a clean transport fuel or industrial energy source.
Technical Working of the Kochi CBG Plant
The Brahmapuram facility processes biodegradable waste collected from 177 centres across Kochi, ensuring systematic feedstock supply to the plant.
Waste undergoes pre-treatment stages including segregation, shredding and grinding, transforming organic waste into a slurry suitable for anaerobic digestion.
The plant operates using a Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) system, where microorganisms break down organic matter under controlled conditions to produce biogas.
The plant also produces Liquid Fermented Organic Manure (LFOM) and Solid Fermented Organic Manure (FOM) as valuable agricultural by-products.
Circular Economy and Agricultural Benefits
The digestate produced during anaerobic digestion is processed into organic manure that improves soil fertility and enhances nutrient absorption, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus.
Fertiliser companies such as Fertilisers and Chemicals Travancore (FACT) distribute these organic fertilisers through established agricultural supply networks.
Such integration strengthens the circular economy model, converting urban waste into valuable agricultural inputs while reducing dependence on chemical fertilisers.
Climate and Energy Benefits
The plant is expected to reduce carbon emissions by approximately 85,000 tonnes annually, equivalent to the carbon sequestration effect of planting around 3.5 million trees.
Biogas generation also captures methane that would otherwise escape from landfills, significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions associated with waste decomposition.
The purified gas is supplied to BPCL’s Kochi refinery, where it can be further utilised in green hydrogen production, linking waste management with India’s emerging hydrogen economy.
Governance and Institutional Framework
The project represents a public–private partnership between Kochi Corporation, BPCL Kochi Refinery and engineering firms, combining municipal governance with industrial expertise.
The project was approved following judicial scrutiny by the Kerala High Court, which questioned the absence of advanced waste processing facilities after the Brahmapuram fire.
Such collaborations reflect a growing trend where oil and energy companies participate in renewable energy and waste management projects under sustainability commitments.
Policy Linkages with National Waste and Energy Missions
Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban)
The project aligns with the Swachh Bharat Mission’s objective of scientific municipal waste management and reduction of landfill dependence.
SATAT Initiative
It also supports the Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) initiative, which promotes production and use of compressed biogas as a clean fuel.
National Bioenergy Mission
Waste-to-energy projects such as this contribute to India’s broader bioenergy strategy aimed at reducing fossil fuel dependence.
Economic and Urban Governance Dimensions
The plant involves an annual operational expenditure of approximately ₹7.5 crore, highlighting the financial commitment required for modern waste processing infrastructure.
Kochi Corporation has allocated ₹15 crore in its 2026–27 budget to support plant operations and waste management logistics.
Long-term sustainability depends on efficient waste segregation systems and consistent feedstock quality, which remain major challenges in Indian urban governance.
Challenges and Concerns
Waste Segregation Issues
Effective functioning of biogas plants requires high-quality biodegradable waste free from plastics, chemicals or acidic substances, which remains difficult in poorly segregated urban waste streams.
Handling Reject Waste
Non-biodegradable waste rejected during segregation still requires safe disposal or recycling, otherwise it may create additional landfill burdens.
Financial Sustainability
Continuous operational costs and infrastructure maintenance can strain municipal budgets, especially in resource-constrained urban local bodies.
Climatic and Geological Constraints
The project experienced delays due to monsoon-related soil instability, illustrating how climatic conditions can affect infrastructure development in coastal regions.
Way Forward
Strengthening source-level waste segregation through citizen participation and municipal enforcement is essential to ensure efficient functioning of waste-to-energy plants.
Cities should adopt a hybrid waste management model combining decentralised composting, biomethanation plants and recycling systems rather than relying solely on centralised facilities.
Expanding public–private partnerships and CSR-driven investments can help finance advanced waste processing infrastructure in Indian cities.
Integrating waste-to-energy initiatives with biofuel, green hydrogen and circular economy strategies can maximise environmental and economic benefits.
Prelims Pointers
Compressed Biogas (CBG): purified form of biogas with methane concentration around 95–97%.
SATAT Initiative: promotes production of CBG for transport fuel.
Brahmapuram waste yard: located near Kochi, Kerala.
Anaerobic digestion: biological process where microorganisms break down organic waste in the absence of oxygen.
The quiet demographic revolution unfolding in India
Why This Issue is in News ?
Recent analysis of National Family Health Survey (NFHS) data highlights that India has undergone a rapid fertility transition, with Total Fertility Rate (TFR) declining from nearly four children per woman in the 1990s to around replacement level today.
Most Indian States now report TFR at or below the replacement level of 2.1, marking a shift from concerns about population explosion to challenges associated with aging populations, labour markets, and demographic balance.
The transformation reflects broader socio-economic changes including rising education levels, urbanisation, declining child mortality, and changing family norms, altering India’s demographic trajectory and development priorities.
Relevance
GS Paper 1 – Population & Demography
Fertility transition
Demographic trends in India
Regional demographic variations
GS Paper 3 – Indian Economy
Demographic dividend
Labour markets and economic growth
Mains Practice Question
Q1.India is witnessing a rapid fertility transition leading to major demographic shifts. Analyse the socio-economic implications of declining fertility in India. (15 marks)
Conceptual Foundations: Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) represents the average number of children a woman is expected to bear during her reproductive lifetime, assuming current age-specific fertility rates remain constant.
A TFR of 2.1 children per woman is considered replacement level fertility, which maintains stable population size in the long run by replacing parents with the next generation.
Fertility levels significantly above replacement lead to rapid population growth, while sustained fertility below replacement can result in population ageing and eventual population decline.
Static Background: India’s Demographic Evolution
During the late twentieth century, India’s demographic debates were dominated by fears of a “population explosion,” influenced by global narratives such as Paul Ehrlich’s “Population Bomb” thesis.
Development planning for decades prioritised population control policies, family planning programmes, and fertility reduction strategies to balance population growth with economic development.
However, sustained improvements in education, healthcare, and economic development have gradually shifted India toward a low-fertility demographic regime.
Evidence from National Family Health Surveys
Data from successive NFHS rounds (NFHS-1 to NFHS-5) shows a steady decline in fertility rates across nearly all Indian States.
In the early NFHS rounds, several States recorded TFR values between three and five children per woman, particularly in northern and northeastern regions.
By NFHS-5, the majority of States reported fertility rates below replacement level, indicating a convergence toward lower fertility norms across the country.
Regional Patterns of Fertility Decline
Southern States such as Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh were early leaders in fertility decline due to higher literacy, urbanisation and improved healthcare systems.
Over time, northern and northeastern States have also experienced significant fertility reductions, though the transition has occurred unevenly across regions.
States such as Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Jammu & Kashmir have recorded some of the largest declines in fertility across successive NFHS surveys.
Drivers of Fertility Decline
Rising Women’s Education
Increased female education significantly influences reproductive choices by raising awareness about family planning and expanding women’s economic opportunities.
As women pursue higher education and employment opportunities, the opportunity cost of early marriage and multiple childbearing increases, contributing to smaller family sizes.
Delayed Marriage and Childbearing
Rising age at marriage and increasing participation of women in education and labour markets have delayed the onset of childbearing, reducing the total number of children born during reproductive years.
Urbanisation and Migration
Urban living conditions typically involve higher costs of housing, education and childcare, making large families economically less viable.
Migration and exposure to new social norms through media and urban networks also accelerate diffusion of smaller family ideals.
Public Health Improvements
Declines in infant and child mortality rates reduce the need for families to have additional children as insurance against child deaths.
Expanding vaccination programmes, maternal healthcare services and nutritional interventions have significantly increased child survival rates.
Economic Factors Influencing Fertility
Rising costs of education, healthcare, housing and skill development have transformed children from contributors to household labour into significant long-term investments.
Families increasingly prioritise quality of upbringing over quantity of children, focusing on education, skills and career opportunities for fewer children.
Economic uncertainty and precarious employment conditions may also contribute to delayed family formation and lower fertility preferences.
Demographic Dividend Opportunity
Declining fertility reduces the dependency ratio, increasing the proportion of working-age population relative to dependents.
This demographic structure creates a potential “demographic dividend,” enabling faster economic growth if supported by employment opportunities, skill development and productive investments.
However, the demographic dividend is not automatic, and requires sustained economic reforms and labour market expansion.
Emerging Regional Demographic Divergence
States with historically low fertility rates, particularly in southern and western India, are entering a phase of rapid population ageing.
In contrast, some northern and central States still maintain relatively higher fertility levels, resulting in demographic asymmetry across regions.
These differences may influence patterns of internal migration, labour markets, fiscal transfers and political representation in the future.
Implications for Internal Migration
Younger workers from relatively high-fertility, economically weaker regions are likely to migrate toward low-fertility, aging regions with labour shortages.
Such migration could become a defining feature of India’s economic geography, linking demographic transitions with labour mobility and regional development dynamics.
Governance and Policy Implications
Labour Market and Employment
Declining fertility highlights the need for labour-intensive industrialisation and employment generation to absorb the expanding working-age population.
Aging Population Management
As fertility declines further, India will need robust pension systems, elderly healthcare infrastructure and long-term care institutions.
Urban Planning
Increasing migration and changing family structures will require expanded urban infrastructure, housing and social services.
Challenges and Risks
Uneven Demographic Transition
Regional differences in fertility and development levels may create economic and political tensions between states with varying demographic profiles.
Employment Constraints
Without sufficient job creation, the demographic dividend could transform into a demographic burden characterised by unemployment and underemployment.
Aging and Care Economy
As fertility declines and life expectancy rises, India will face growing demand for elder care systems and social security mechanisms.
Way Forward
India must prioritise labour-intensive manufacturing, skill development and technological innovation to fully harness the demographic dividend.
Strengthening public healthcare systems, pension coverage and elderly care services will be essential for managing demographic ageing.
Policies promoting gender equality, childcare support and work-life balance can help maintain stable fertility levels while enabling women’s participation in the workforce.
Long-term planning should integrate demographic trends with economic, urban and social policy frameworks.
Prelims Pointers
Total Fertility Rate (TFR): average number of children born per woman.
Replacement fertility level: approximately 2.1 children per woman.
National Family Health Survey (NFHS): major demographic and health data source in India.
Demographic dividend: economic growth potential arising from a large working-age population.
India ranks second globally in childhood obesity: study
Why This Issue is in News ?
The World Obesity Atlas 2026 reports that nearly 15 million children aged 5–19 in India were overweight or obese in 2025, placing India among the countries with the highest number of obese children globally.
China, India and the United States each have more than 10 million children with obesity, indicating that childhood obesity is becoming a major global health concern.
The report warns that if current trends continue, childhood obesity rates may rise sharply by 2030 and 2040, threatening global public health systems and undermining Sustainable Development Goal targets.
Relevance
GS Paper 2 – Health
Public health challenges
Nutrition policy
Lifestyle diseases
GS Paper 3 – Human Capital & Economy
Impact of NCDs on productivity and economic growth
GS Paper 1 – Social Issues
Double burden of malnutrition
Mains Practice Question
Q3.India faces a “double burden of malnutrition” characterised by persistent undernutrition alongside rising obesity.Discuss the causes and policy challenges associated with this phenomenon. (15 marks)
Conceptual Foundations: Childhood Obesity
Childhood obesity refers to excessive body fat accumulation in children and adolescents that negatively affects health and increases the risk of chronic diseases later in life.
It is typically assessed using Body Mass Index (BMI) for age, where values above standard thresholds indicate overweight or obesity based on global health guidelines.
Childhood obesity is influenced by a combination of dietary patterns, physical activity levels, genetics, socio-economic factors and environmental conditions.
Static Background: Global Obesity Trends
The World Health Organization recognises obesity as one of the most serious public health challenges of the 21st century, affecting both developed and developing countries.
Rapid urbanisation, dietary transitions and sedentary lifestyles have contributed to a global rise in overweight and obesity among both adults and children.
In many developing countries, obesity now coexists with undernutrition, creating a complex “double burden of malnutrition”.
Global Scale of the Problem
According to the World Obesity Atlas, more than one in five children worldwide (around 20.7%) are projected to be overweight or obese by 2030.
Childhood obesity rates have increased dramatically since 2010, reflecting changing food environments, increasing consumption of ultra-processed foods and declining physical activity levels.
Without effective interventions, the global burden of obesity is expected to significantly increase by 2040, placing additional pressure on health systems.
India’s Childhood Obesity Scenario
India currently has around 14 million obese children and adolescents, making it the second-highest globally after China in terms of absolute numbers.
Approximately 26 million children aged 5–19 were overweight or obese in 2025, reflecting a significant rise compared to previous decades.
The number of children with high Body Mass Index (BMI) in India is projected to reach 41 million by 2030 and 62 million by 2040, indicating a steep upward trajectory.
Health Consequences of Childhood Obesity
Childhood obesity significantly increases the risk of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and metabolic disorders.
The report projects substantial increases in obesity-related health conditions among children by 2040, including hypertension, hyperglycaemia, hypertriglyceridemia and metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MASLD).
Early onset obesity also increases the likelihood of adult obesity and lifelong health complications, reducing life expectancy and increasing healthcare costs.
Key Risk Factors Driving Childhood Obesity
Poor Physical Activity
Sedentary lifestyles associated with increased screen time, urban living and reduced outdoor activity significantly contribute to weight gain among children.
The report indicates that nearly 74% of adolescents aged 11–17 fail to meet recommended physical activity levels, highlighting a widespread behavioural challenge.
Unhealthy Dietary Patterns
Rising consumption of ultra-processed foods, sugary beverages and high-calorie snacks is a major contributor to obesity among children and adolescents.
Increased availability and aggressive marketing of processed foods have reshaped dietary preferences, particularly in urban environments.
Inadequate Breastfeeding
Early childhood nutrition plays a crucial role in long-term health outcomes.
The report notes that more than six months of breastfeeding is associated with lower risk of childhood obesity, yet many children experience sub-optimal breastfeeding practices.
Socio-economic and Environmental Factors
Urbanisation, lifestyle changes and limited access to safe recreational spaces contribute to declining physical activity among children.
Household income growth and changing food consumption patterns have increased reliance on energy-dense but nutrient-poor foods.
India’s Double Burden of Malnutrition
India simultaneously faces undernutrition and rising obesity, creating a complex public health challenge requiring integrated nutrition strategies.
While significant progress has been made in reducing stunting and underweight prevalence, rising obesity rates indicate a shift toward nutrition transition and lifestyle diseases.
Addressing both forms of malnutrition requires balanced interventions focusing on diet quality, health education and lifestyle changes.
Governance and Policy Framework in India
National Programme for Prevention and Control of NCDs (NP-NCD)
The programme focuses on prevention, early detection and management of non-communicable diseases including diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.
POSHAN Abhiyaan
The National Nutrition Mission aims to improve maternal and child nutrition through multi-sectoral interventions, though its focus has traditionally been on undernutrition.
Fit India Movement
The Fit India campaign promotes physical activity and healthy lifestyles among citizens, including children and youth.
School Health Programmes
Initiatives under Ayushman Bharat’s School Health Programme aim to promote awareness about nutrition, physical activity and healthy habits among schoolchildren.
Economic and Social Implications
Rising childhood obesity increases the long-term burden of non-communicable diseases, healthcare expenditure and productivity losses.
The economic cost of obesity includes higher healthcare spending, reduced labour productivity and increased social welfare burdens.
If left unaddressed, childhood obesity could undermine human capital development and demographic dividend potential.
Challenges
Lack of Awareness
Limited awareness among parents and communities regarding healthy dietary practices and lifestyle behaviours contributes to rising obesity.
Food Environment
Easy availability of cheap processed foods and sugary beverages influences children’s dietary habits.
Urban Infrastructure
Lack of safe playgrounds, parks and pedestrian-friendly urban spaces discourages physical activity.
Weak Regulation
Insufficient regulation of junk food marketing targeted at children exacerbates unhealthy consumption patterns.
Way Forward
Governments should implement comprehensive school-based nutrition and physical activity programmes promoting healthy lifestyles from early childhood.
Stronger regulations on marketing of unhealthy foods and sugary beverages to children are necessary to reshape food environments.
Urban planning must prioritise child-friendly infrastructure such as parks, sports facilities and pedestrian spaces to encourage active lifestyles.
Public health campaigns should promote breastfeeding, balanced diets and reduced screen time to prevent early onset obesity.
Prelims Pointers
World Obesity Atlas: published by the World Obesity Federation.
Replacement BMI indicator: used to measure overweight and obesity in children based on age-specific standards.
MASLD: Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (previously NAFLD).
Recommended physical activity for adolescents: at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous activity daily (WHO guideline).
Website Blocking in India: Governance, Legal Issues and Internet Freedom
Why This Issue is in News ?
A recent study has highlighted large-scale website blocking practices by Indian Internet Service Providers (ISPs), raising concerns about transparency, proportionality and legal oversight in internet censorship mechanisms.
The study found that over 43,000 web domains were blocked across major ISPs, often through court orders, government directives and private complaints related to piracy, copyright violations and illegal content.
Researchers also observed significant inconsistencies in how different ISPs implement blocking orders, indicating structural weaknesses in India’s internet governance and digital regulatory framework.
Relevance
GS Paper 2 – Governance
Internet governance
Regulation of digital platforms
GS Paper 3 – Cyber Security / Digital Economy
Online regulation
Digital infrastructure governance
Mains Practice Question
Q1.Discuss the constitutional, technological and governance challenges associated with website blocking and internet censorship in India. (15 marks)
Conceptual Foundations: Website Blocking
Website blocking refers to restricting access to specific internet resources such as websites, domains or URLs through network-level filtering mechanisms implemented by Internet Service Providers or government authorities.
Governments typically use blocking to prevent access to illegal, harmful or infringing content, including piracy websites, child exploitation material, extremist propaganda and online fraud platforms.
However, excessive or poorly regulated blocking may raise concerns about freedom of expression, digital rights and proportionality of censorship measures.
Static Legal Background
Information Technology Act, 2000
Section 69A of the Information Technology Act, 2000 empowers the central government to block public access to online information in the interest of sovereignty, security, public order or preventing incitement to offences.
Blocking orders under Section 69A are issued through a confidential government process involving a review committee and designated officers, often without public disclosure of specific URLs or websites blocked.
The Information Technology (Procedure and Safeguards for Blocking for Access of Information by Public) Rules, 2009 provide procedural safeguards governing such actions.
Judicial Oversight
Indian courts frequently order domain-level blocking of websites involved in copyright infringement, online piracy or illegal streaming, particularly under intellectual property litigation.
Courts often issue “dynamic injunctions”, allowing authorities to block mirror websites that replicate previously banned content.
However, critics argue that broad blocking orders may inadvertently affect legitimate websites or lawful online activities.
Scale of Website Blocking in India
The study identified 43,083 blocked domains across major Indian ISPs, making it one of the largest analyses of internet censorship practices in the country.
Among these, 6,787 domains were linked to copyright infringement, while 5,450 domains were associated with pornography-related content.
Other blocked categories included online gambling, piracy streaming platforms and potentially illegal digital content services.
Internet Service Providers Involved
The study analysed blocking practices across major ISPs such as ACT Fibernet, MTNL, Airtel, Jio, Connect Broadband and Vodafone Idea.
Researchers found that different ISPs applied blocking orders inconsistently, even when the same websites were targeted under a single court order.
Such inconsistencies highlight technical and regulatory gaps in implementation of internet governance rules.
Governance and Regulatory Dimensions
Website blocking in India involves a complex interaction between executive authorities, judiciary, ISPs and private complainants, creating a multi-layered regulatory structure.
Government agencies may order blocks under national security or public order considerations, while courts often issue blocks in copyright enforcement cases.
ISPs act as the technical enforcement layer, implementing domain filtering, DNS blocking or IP blocking mechanisms.
Key Concerns Identified by the Study
Lack of Transparency
Many blocking orders are implemented without public disclosure of specific domains, reasons for blocking or duration of restrictions, limiting accountability.
Inconsistent Implementation
Different ISPs often implement the same blocking orders differently, resulting in uneven enforcement across networks.
Overblocking
Domain-level blocking may inadvertently restrict access to legitimate content hosted on the same platform, raising concerns about proportionality.
Limited Judicial Scrutiny
In many cases, blocking orders are issued ex parte (without hearing all parties), reducing opportunities for affected websites to contest decisions.
Constitutional and Legal Dimensions
Freedom of Speech and Expression
Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution guarantees freedom of speech and expression, including online communication and access to information.
Restrictions on online content must satisfy the reasonable restrictions under Article 19(2), such as national security, public order and decency.
Judicial Safeguards
In Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015), the Supreme Court upheld Section 69A while emphasising procedural safeguards to prevent arbitrary internet censorship.
The Court stressed that blocking mechanisms must follow due process, proportionality and transparency.
Economic and Technological Dimensions
Website blocking affects not only illegal websites but also the digital economy ecosystem, particularly content platforms, startups and technology companies.
Overblocking may disrupt legitimate online businesses and digital innovation, creating uncertainty for internet-based enterprises.
Technologically, users often circumvent blocks through Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) or mirror websites, limiting the long-term effectiveness of censorship.
Global Comparison
Many democratic countries regulate internet content but emphasise transparent regulatory processes, judicial review and proportional enforcement mechanisms.
The European Union’s digital governance frameworks, including the Digital Services Act, emphasise transparency, accountability and user rights in online content regulation.
India’s current framework has been criticised for opacity and limited public oversight.
Challenges
Regulatory Fragmentation
Internet governance responsibilities are spread across multiple institutions including MeitY, judiciary and telecom regulators, complicating coordination.
Technical Limitations
Blocking at the domain or IP level can be imprecise and easily circumvented, reducing effectiveness.
Balancing Rights and Regulation
Policymakers must balance digital freedoms with the need to combat illegal online content and protect intellectual property rights.
Limited Transparency
Confidentiality provisions in blocking rules reduce public scrutiny and accountability.
Way Forward
India should adopt transparent reporting mechanisms for website blocking orders, similar to transparency reports published by global digital platforms.
Stronger judicial oversight and periodic review of blocking orders can ensure that restrictions remain proportionate and necessary.
Developing clear technical standards for ISP compliance can reduce inconsistencies in implementation across networks.
Policymakers should balance internet governance with protection of digital rights, ensuring that censorship mechanisms do not undermine democratic freedoms.
Prelims Pointers
Section 69A of IT Act, 2000: empowers government to block online content.
Blocking Rules: Information Technology (Procedure and Safeguards for Blocking for Access of Information) Rules, 2009.
Key Supreme Court case: Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015).
Dynamic injunction: court order allowing blocking of mirror piracy websites.
On India’s fighter jet acquisitions
Why This Issue is in News ?
India’s Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) recently approved procurement of 114 Rafale fighter jets from France’s Dassault Aviation, valued at approximately ₹3.25 lakh crore, one of the largest defence acquisition programmes in India.
During the India–France AI Summit visit, French President Emmanuel Macron reiterated commitments to technology transfer and co-production under the Make in India framework.
However, France has reportedly refused to share critical source codes for electronic warfare and radar systems, raising concerns about India’s ability to customise and indigenise fighter aircraft operations.
Relevance
GS Paper 3 – Internal Security / Defence
Defence modernisation
Air power capability
GS Paper 3 – Science & Technology
Defence technology transfer
Indigenous defence manufacturing
Mains Practice Question
Q1.Technology transfer remains a critical issue in India’s defence procurement.
Discuss the challenges associated with defence technology transfer and its implications for India’s strategic autonomy. (15 marks)
Conceptual Foundations: Technology Transfer in Defence
Technology transfer (ToT) in defence procurement refers to the transfer of technical knowledge, design architecture, production processes and intellectual property from foreign suppliers to domestic industries.
Effective ToT allows countries to build domestic manufacturing capability, integrate indigenous systems and reduce long-term dependence on foreign suppliers.
However, many defence agreements involve limited or “licensed production” arrangements, where countries assemble equipment locally without full access to core technologies.
Static Background: India’s Fighter Aircraft Modernisation
India’s air power strategy has historically relied on a mix of indigenous platforms and imported fighter aircraft, including aircraft from Russia, France and other partners.
Major platforms currently operated by the Indian Air Force (IAF) include:
Su-30MKI (Russia-India collaboration)
Rafale (France)
Mirage 2000 (France)
Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (India).
India’s fighter fleet has been undergoing rapid modernisation due to aging aircraft, regional security threats and evolving air warfare technologies.
IAF Squadron Strength and Strategic Gap
The Indian Air Force currently operates about 29 fighter squadrons, significantly below the authorised strength of 42 squadrons required to address threats from both China and Pakistan.
The retirement of MiG-21 fighter jets in September 2025 after 62 years of service further reduced operational capacity.
In comparison:
China operates approximately 65 squadrons, highlighting the scale of regional air power competition.
Structure of the Rafale Procurement Deal
Under the proposed deal, 18 Rafale aircraft will be delivered in fly-away condition, ensuring rapid operational induction into the Indian Air Force.
The remaining 96 aircraft will be manufactured in India, aligning with India’s policy of domestic defence production and industrial capability development.
Indigenous content in the project is targeted to reach approximately 30% initially and potentially 60% over time, depending on domestic industrial capacity.
Industrial Ecosystem and Make in India
Tata Advanced Systems Limited (TASL) has partnered with Dassault Aviation to manufacture four key fuselage sections of Rafale aircraft in Hyderabad.
Production is expected to begin around FY 2028 with a capacity of 24 fuselage sections annually, integrating Indian firms into the global aerospace supply chain.
Such industrial partnerships aim to create Tier-2 and Tier-3 supplier networks in India, strengthening domestic aerospace manufacturing capabilities.
Technology Transfer Limitations
Despite commitments to co-production, France has declined to share source codes of critical mission systems, including electronic warfare suites and radar software.
Source codes allow countries to modify mission software, integrate indigenous weapons and upgrade systems independently without foreign approval.
Without such access, India remains dependent on foreign vendors for system modifications and upgrades, limiting operational autonomy.
Strategic Importance of Software in Modern Warfare
Modern fighter aircraft operate within software-defined warfare ecosystems, where mission software governs radar functions, electronic warfare systems and weapon integration.
Control over software architecture determines a country’s ability to integrate indigenous missiles, sensors and communication systems.
Lack of software autonomy increases long-term costs and operational dependency on foreign contractors.
Lessons from Previous Defence Procurement
Mirage 2000 Upgrade Case
India’s upgrade programme for Mirage 2000 aircraft involved significant dependence on French vendors, costing over €1 billion for upgrades across approximately 50 aircraft since 2011.
Limited access to software systems meant higher costs and slower integration of indigenous technologies.
International Example: Turkey’s TF-X Programme
Turkey secured airframe manufacturing capabilities for the TF-X KAAN fighter aircraft, but continued dependence on foreign engine technology illustrates the limitations of partial technology transfer.
Alternative Strategic Options
Russian Su-57 Fighter Programme
Russia has reportedly offered greater access to source codes in consultations regarding the Su-57 stealth fighter, potentially allowing deeper avionics customisation.
However, Russia’s aerospace industry faces sanctions-related supply constraints and technological challenges, including delays in next-generation engine development.
Dependence on another supplier without technological autonomy may simply replace one dependency with another.
Emerging Signs of Indigenous Capability
India is gradually transitioning from licensee to modifier and exporter, illustrated by the proposed export of Su-30MKI fighter aircraft to Armenia worth approximately $3 billion.
The Armenian variant will integrate India’s indigenous Uttam AESA radar and Astra air-to-air missiles, demonstrating growing domestic technological capabilities.
Such developments indicate increasing absorption capacity in India’s defence aerospace ecosystem.
Defence Budget and Industrial Policy
The Union Budget 2026–27 allocated ₹7.85 lakh crore to defence, representing an increase of more than 15% compared to the previous year.
Capital expenditure for modernisation rose by over 20% to ₹2.19 lakh crore, with 75% of the capital budget earmarked for domestic procurement.
India’s defence production reached ₹1.51 lakh crore in FY 2024–25, with the private sector contributing around 23% of total output.
Geopolitical and Strategic Context
India’s defence procurement strategy emphasises supplier diversification across France, Russia, Israel and the United States, preventing technological monopolies.
Operation Sindoor in 2025 highlighted the need for interoperability among different aircraft platforms such as Rafale, Su-30MKI and Mirage 2000.
This has accelerated efforts to develop Integrated Air Command and Control Systems and future theatre commands.
India’s Defence Capability in Global Context
According to the World Directory of Modern Military Aircraft 2026, the Indian Air Force achieved a TruVal Rating of 69.4, ranking sixth globally in combat capability.
Interestingly, this rating surpasses China’s score of 63.8, reflecting operational effectiveness rather than industrial capability.
However, India remains one of the largest arms importers globally, highlighting the gap between operational strength and technological sovereignty.
Structural Challenges to Defence Autonomy
Limited Indigenous Value Addition
Historically, India’s indigenous value addition in licensed defence production has remained between 25% and 35%, concentrated primarily in structural manufacturing.
Weak Aerospace Supply Chains
India’s Tier-2 and Tier-3 aerospace suppliers lack access to capital, certification systems and advanced materials, limiting deeper technological participation.
Human Capital Constraints
The aerospace sector faces shortages of highly skilled engineers and specialists in advanced technologies such as AI-driven design and simulation.
Way Forward
India must increase defence research and development spending, currently about ₹29,100 crore, to match innovation levels in advanced aerospace ecosystems.
Building deep-tier domestic supply chains with strong MSME participation can enhance indigenous capability in avionics, sensors and materials technology.
Strategic negotiations in future defence deals should prioritise source code access, subsystem ownership and co-development rather than simple assembly arrangements.
Long-term investments in human capital, advanced engineering education and defence technology incubation will determine India’s true strategic autonomy.
Prelims Pointers
Defence Acquisition Council (DAC): highest decision-making body for defence procurement.
Rafale Fighter Jet: manufactured by Dassault Aviation, France.
M88 Engine: developed by Safran for Rafale aircraft.
AESA Radar: Active Electronically Scanned Array radar used in modern fighter aircraft.
Rupee Depreciation and Its Impact on India’s Economy, IT Sector and Exports
Why This Issue is in News ?
The Indian rupee recently breached the ₹92 per U.S. dollar mark for the first time, reflecting sustained depreciation amid global geopolitical tensions, oil price volatility and capital flow pressures.
Escalation of conflict in West Asia and disruptions in the Strait of Hormuz shipping routes have increased crude oil prices and import costs, exerting downward pressure on the rupee.
Currency depreciation has implications for inflation, trade balance, monetary policy and sectoral performance, particularly affecting import-intensive sectors while benefiting export-oriented industries.
Relevance
GS Paper 3 – Indian Economy
Exchange rate dynamics
Trade deficit and current account deficit
GS Paper 3 – External Sector
Foreign capital flows
Balance of payments
Mains Practice Question
Q1.Currency depreciation has both positive and negative implications for an emerging economy.
Analyse the impact of rupee depreciation on India’s inflation, exports and macroeconomic stability. (15 marks)
Conceptual Foundations: Exchange Rate and Currency Depreciation
The exchange rate refers to the price of one currency expressed in terms of another currency in the foreign exchange market.
Currency depreciation occurs when the value of a country’s currency falls relative to other currencies, meaning more domestic currency is required to purchase foreign currency.
In a floating exchange rate regime, currency values fluctuate based on trade flows, capital movements, interest rates, inflation differentials and geopolitical risks.
Static Background: India’s Exchange Rate Framework
India follows a managed floating exchange rate system, where market forces determine currency value but the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) intervenes periodically to prevent excessive volatility.
RBI interventions typically involve buying or selling foreign exchange reserves, managing liquidity and maintaining macroeconomic stability.
Exchange rate stability is critical for trade competitiveness, inflation control and financial market confidence.
Causes Behind Recent Rupee Depreciation
Rising Crude Oil Prices
India imports nearly 85% of its crude oil requirements, making the economy highly sensitive to global oil price fluctuations.
Geopolitical tensions and supply disruptions in West Asia have pushed oil prices higher, increasing India’s import bill and demand for U.S. dollars.
Global Financial Conditions
Strong U.S. economic performance and higher interest rates in advanced economies attract global capital toward dollar-denominated assets, strengthening the dollar against emerging market currencies.
Capital outflows from emerging markets often lead to currency depreciation pressures.
Trade Deficit Pressures
India continues to maintain a structural trade deficit, as imports of crude oil, electronics, gold and machinery exceed exports.
In FY 2023–24, India’s current account deficit (CAD) stood at approximately $13.2 billion, though manageable at around 0.3–0.5% of GDP.
Impact on Inflation
Imported Inflation
Currency depreciation increases the cost of imported commodities such as crude oil, electronics, fertilisers and industrial inputs.
Higher import prices feed into domestic inflation, especially through fuel prices, transportation costs and manufacturing inputs.
Consumer Price Inflation
Rising input costs may translate into higher retail prices for goods and services, increasing the Consumer Price Index (CPI).
Economists estimate that exchange rate depreciation can add around 20–30 basis points to inflation, depending on global commodity prices.
Impact on IT and Export-Oriented Sectors
Advantage for IT Services
India’s IT sector earns a significant share of revenue in U.S. dollars and other foreign currencies, making it a major beneficiary of rupee depreciation.
When the rupee weakens, export earnings converted into rupees increase, improving profit margins and revenue stability for IT companies.
Earnings Buffer for Technology Firms
A weaker rupee can partially offset global slowdown in technology spending, helping firms maintain profitability during periods of subdued international demand.
This exchange rate cushion supports quarterly earnings performance and stock market valuations.
Benefits for Merchandise Exporters
Export sectors such as pharmaceuticals, chemicals, textiles and engineering goods may gain competitiveness in global markets due to lower relative export prices.
Many export contracts are denominated in U.S. dollars or euros, meaning exporters receive higher rupee earnings when the domestic currency depreciates.
However, benefits depend on whether exporters rely heavily on imported raw materials, which may offset gains from currency depreciation.
Impact on Import-Dependent Sectors
Industries dependent on imported inputs such as electronics, energy, aviation, fertilisers and chemicals face higher production costs when the rupee weakens.
These sectors may experience margin compression and increased operational expenses, especially if they cannot fully pass costs onto consumers.
Rising import costs can also widen the trade deficit and current account deficit if export growth does not keep pace.
Impact on Capital Flows and Financial Markets
Currency depreciation can influence foreign portfolio investment (FPI) decisions, as exchange rate risks affect returns on financial assets.
Persistent rupee weakness may reduce investor confidence and trigger capital outflows from equity and bond markets.
However, moderate depreciation may also support export-driven growth and corporate earnings, attracting long-term investors.
Monetary Policy Implications
The Reserve Bank of India may respond to inflationary pressures arising from depreciation through monetary tightening or liquidity management measures.
Currency weakness can complicate monetary policy by forcing policymakers to balance growth objectives with inflation control.
RBI may also intervene in the foreign exchange market using its substantial foreign exchange reserves to stabilise the rupee.
Strategic and Geoeconomic Implications
Sustained depreciation highlights India’s vulnerability to global commodity shocks and external financial conditions.
Exchange rate stability is increasingly linked with energy security, export competitiveness and macroeconomic resilience.
Diversification of energy imports and expansion of export sectors are critical to strengthening India’s external sector stability.
Challenges
Energy Import Dependence
Heavy reliance on imported oil makes the rupee particularly sensitive to global energy price shocks.
Structural Trade Deficit
Persistent trade deficits create long-term pressure on the currency.
Global Financial Volatility
Capital flow reversals triggered by global interest rate cycles can destabilise emerging market currencies.
Inflation Risks
Currency depreciation may intensify inflationary pressures, particularly in fuel and food supply chains.
Way Forward
Strengthening export competitiveness and manufacturing capacity can improve India’s trade balance and reduce currency vulnerability.
Accelerating energy diversification through renewable energy and domestic exploration can reduce reliance on imported fossil fuels.
Deepening foreign exchange reserves and prudent macroeconomic management will help stabilise currency markets during global shocks.
Promoting value-added exports in sectors such as electronics, pharmaceuticals and services can strengthen India’s external economic resilience.
Prelims Pointers
Exchange rate regime in India: Managed float.
Current Account Deficit (CAD): difference between a country’s savings and investment reflected in external transactions.
Foreign Exchange Reserves: maintained by RBI to stabilise currency and external sector.
Major export sectors benefiting from rupee depreciation: IT services, pharmaceuticals, textiles.
NCERT Textbook Drafting Controversy and Debate on Judiciary Representation
Why This Issue is in News ?
A controversy has emerged regarding the new NCERT textbooks, particularly the chapter on the judiciary, following allegations of “judiciary corruption” references and concerns over transparency in textbook preparation.
The debate intensified after statements by the Union Education Minister, suggesting that such allegations could reflect attempts to undermine public trust in institutions.
The issue has also reached the Supreme Court, which sought clarification from the government regarding the process of drafting and approving NCERT textbooks under the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2023.
Relevance
GS Paper 2 – Polity & Governance
Institutional accountability
Academic autonomy and governance
GS Paper 2 – Education
Curriculum development
National Education Policy (NEP 2020)
Mains Practice Question
Q1.Curriculum and textbook development play a critical role in shaping democratic values and institutional trust.
Discuss the governance challenges associated with curriculum development in India. (15 marks)
Institutional Background: NCERT and Textbook Development
NCERT
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is an autonomous organisation under the Ministry of Education responsible for curriculum development, research, teacher training and preparation of school textbooks.
NCERT textbooks serve as reference learning material for CBSE schools and several state boards, giving them significant influence over school education across India.
The organisation operates through expert committees and advisory bodies that design curriculum frameworks and learning content.
Static Background: National Curriculum Framework (NCF)
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) provides the broad pedagogical and curricular guidelines for school education in India.
The latest framework, NCF 2023, was developed in line with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, emphasising multidisciplinary learning, conceptual understanding and competency-based education.
NCERT textbooks are revised periodically to reflect the changes recommended in the NCF.
Structure of Textbook Development Committees
National Syllabus and Teaching Learning Material Committee (NSTC)
The NSTC plays a central role in overseeing the development of new textbooks under the NCF framework.
It supervises subject-specific committees and ensures that textbooks align with curriculum objectives, pedagogical standards and academic guidelines.
Curriculum Area Groups (CAGs)
NCERT establishes Curriculum Area Groups for different disciplines, such as social sciences, science and mathematics.
These groups consist of academic experts, teachers, subject specialists and researchers responsible for drafting textbook chapters and reviewing content.
Composition of the Social Science Textbook Committee
The Social Science Curriculum Area Group includes scholars from universities, historians, political scientists and education experts who contribute to textbook development.
Members typically include academic researchers, school educators and experts from institutions such as universities, teacher training institutes and research organisations.
The group drafts chapters covering subjects such as history, political science, geography and economics.
Textbook Drafting Process
Stage 1: Conceptual Framework
The drafting process begins with defining the learning objectives and conceptual structure of chapters, guided by the National Curriculum Framework.
Experts determine themes, concepts and pedagogical approaches that align with grade-level competencies.
Stage 2: Draft Preparation
Subject experts and academic authors prepare initial drafts of textbook chapters, incorporating academic research, historical sources and pedagogical methodologies.
Drafts are designed to ensure clarity, accessibility and alignment with curriculum outcomes.
Stage 3: Peer Review and Expert Consultation
Draft chapters undergo multiple rounds of peer review by subject specialists, education experts and curriculum committees.
Feedback is incorporated to improve accuracy, balance and pedagogical effectiveness.
Stage 4: Institutional Approval
The final drafts are reviewed by NCERT authorities and advisory committees before being approved for publication and distribution.
Textbooks are subsequently printed and distributed to schools under central and state education systems.
Role of Advisory Bodies in Textbook Development
Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE)
The Central Advisory Board of Education is the highest advisory body in the education sector, providing policy guidance to both central and state governments.
CABE members may contribute to broader discussions on curriculum reforms and textbook content guidelines.
Academic Advisory Committees
Committees comprising educationists, policymakers and researchers ensure that textbook content remains academically rigorous and pedagogically appropriate.
Key Concerns Raised in the Current Controversy
Institutional Representation
Questions have been raised regarding whether legal scholars and judicial experts were adequately consulted while drafting chapters related to the judiciary.
Content Interpretation
Critics argue that certain descriptions or interpretations of judicial functioning could influence public perception of democratic institutions.
Transparency in Curriculum Development
The debate highlights the need for greater transparency in the composition and functioning of textbook committees.
Constitutional and Governance Dimensions
Education in the Constitution
Education is placed in the Concurrent List (Entry 25 of the Seventh Schedule), allowing both the Union and State governments to formulate policies.
National-level curriculum frameworks must therefore balance central guidelines with regional educational needs.
Academic Freedom
Curriculum development requires balancing academic autonomy with public accountability, ensuring that textbooks remain factually accurate and pedagogically sound.
Democratic societies must safeguard scholarly debate and diverse perspectives while maintaining institutional credibility.
Broader Issues in Curriculum Development
Political Sensitivity
School textbooks often become arenas of political and ideological contestation, particularly in subjects such as history and political science.
Institutional Trust
Educational content influences public understanding of democratic institutions, making accuracy and balance essential.
Pedagogical Responsibility
Textbooks must ensure age-appropriate explanations of complex institutions, avoiding oversimplification or distortion.
Challenges
Maintaining Academic Neutrality
Ensuring that textbook content reflects scholarly consensus rather than political bias remains a key challenge.
Committee Representation
Achieving balanced representation from academia, legal experts, educators and policymakers is essential for credibility.
Transparency in Review Processes
Limited public visibility of committee deliberations may create perceptions of lack of transparency in textbook development.
Way Forward
Strengthening transparent procedures for textbook drafting and review can enhance public trust in curriculum development.
Greater inclusion of interdisciplinary experts, including legal scholars and constitutional experts, can improve the quality of institutional discussions in textbooks.
Periodic public consultations and academic peer reviews can ensure that textbooks remain updated, balanced and pedagogically effective.
Encouraging critical thinking and civic education can help students understand democratic institutions in a nuanced manner.
Prelims Pointers
NCERT: National Council of Educational Research and Training.
National Curriculum Framework (NCF): guideline for curriculum development.
NEP 2020: National Education Policy guiding education reforms.
Education in Constitution: Concurrent List (Entry 25).