Content:

1. Speaker cannot be ‘indecisive’ on pleas over defection: SC
2. Third language choice: Hindi in non-Hindi States, Sanskrit in Hindi-belt
3. How did the Myanmar earthquake occur?
4. Ensure education, hygiene, healthcare in rural areas: SC
5. India’s critical efforts to tackle air pollution could worsen warming
6. Chandrayaan’s ChaSTE takes the moon’s temperature

---

Speaker cannot be ‘indecisive’ on pleas over defection: SC

---

Context

• The Supreme Court (SC) addressed petitions filed by Bharat Rashtra Samithi (BRS) leaders seeking timely action on disqualification proceedings against 10 MLAs who defected to the ruling Congress in Telangana.
• The core issue: Can constitutional courts direct the Speaker to decide anti-defection cases within a specified period?

Key Observations by the Supreme Court

Speaker Cannot Remain Indecisive

• The SC Bench, led by Justice B.R. Gavai, emphasized that the Speaker cannot use indecision as a tool to defeat the objective of the Tenth Schedule (Anti-Defection Law).
• The court asserted that it is not “powerless” when a Speaker deliberately delays action.

Role of Constitutional Courts in Checking Delay

• Justice Gavai questioned whether constitutional courts, as guardians of the Constitution, must remain inactive if the Speaker deliberately delays a disqualification decision.
• If defection occurs in the first year of a government’s tenure, and the Speaker remains passive for four years, can courts remain powerless?
• Courts have the duty to ensure constitutional morality and prevent abuse of power by elected officials.

‘Reasonable Period’ for Decision-Making

• The SC suggested that while courts cannot dictate the Speaker’s decision, they can direct the Speaker to decide within a reasonable timeframe.
• The key constitutional question: Can courts impose a deadline on the Speaker to decide on disqualification petitions?

Constitutional and Legal Implications

Anti-Defection Law and Its Objective

• Tenth Schedule (52nd Constitutional Amendment, 1985) was enacted to prevent political defections that lead to instability.
• It empowers the Speaker to disqualify MLAs who defect from their party.
• However, lack of a strict timeline for deciding petitions has led to frequent delays and misuse.

Judicial Precedents and Powers of Courts

• Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992):
  • SC upheld that the Speaker’s decision on disqualification is subject to judicial review but only on grounds of mala fide intent, perversity, or violation of natural justice.

• Manoj Narula v. Union of India (2014):
  • SC ruled that constitutional morality must guide governance, and courts can intervene when constitutional functionaries fail in their duties.

• Recent Judgments on Speaker’s Delay:
  • SC has previously directed Speakers to decide disqualification cases in a time-bound manner (e.g., Karnataka MLAs’ disqualification case, 2019).

Separation of Powers vs. Judicial Oversight

• Arguments for Judicial Intervention:
  • Ensures timely enforcement of the anti-defection law.
  • Prevents Speakers from acting in a partisan manner.

• Arguments Against Judicial Intervention:
  • Risks judicial overreach into the functioning of the legislature.
  • The Speaker is a constitutional authority, and courts cannot interfere with its discretionary powers beyond reasonable limits.

Conclusion and Broader Implications

• The Supreme Court’s intervention highlights the persistent issue of delayed disqualification proceedings, often used as a political tool.
• If the SC sets a precedent for enforcing deadlines on Speakers, it could bring greater accountability but may also trigger debates on judicial encroachment into legislative functions.
• This case could lead to institutional reforms ensuring a fixed timeline for the Speaker’s decision under the Tenth Schedule, similar to timelines set for election disputes under the Representation of the People Act.

---

Third language choice: Hindi in non-Hindi States, Sanskrit in Hindi-belt

---

Overview of the Issue

• The debate over the three-language formula remains contentious, particularly in Tamil Nadu, which has historically opposed its implementation.
• A key missing element in the discourse is recent data on language instruction in schools across different States.
• The latest available granular data comes from the 2009 All India School Education Survey, which is outdated and not publicly accessible.

Relevance : GS 2(Governance , Education )

Key Findings from the 2009 Survey

• The survey reveals a clear pattern in third-language choices in both Hindi and non-Hindi speaking States.

A. Hindi-Speaking States (Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand)

• Hindi is overwhelmingly the primary language of instruction.
• Sanskrit is the most common third language, despite the 1968 National Education Policy (NEP) recommending a modern southern language in Hindi-speaking States.
• Data Breakdown:
  • Bihar: 99.1% schools taught Hindi, 64% English, 56% Sanskrit, only 8% taught other languages.
  • Uttar Pradesh: 94% Hindi, 75.3% English, 65.2% Sanskrit, just 7% other languages.
  • Uttarakhand: 99.5% Hindi, 85.5% English, 79.4% Sanskrit, only 2.6% other languages.

B. Non-Hindi-Speaking States (Gujarat, Karnataka, Punjab, etc.)

• The third language tends to be Hindi, reflecting a default preference rather than enforcement.
• Data Breakdown:
  • Gujarat: 97% schools taught Gujarati, 20.9% English, 64% Hindi, only 2.2% other languages.
  • Karnataka: 97.5% Kannada, 86.2% English, 30.4% Hindi, only 15% other languages.
  • Punjab: 79.2% Hindi, less than 1% offered languages other than English and Punjabi.

Supply-Side Constraints Impacting Third Language Choice

• Availability of teachers plays a crucial role in determining third-language choices.
• Himachal Pradesh case study:
  • Telugu, Tamil, and French had zero enrollments due to a lack of teachers.
  • Teacher vacancy rates:
    • 34% of Punjabi teaching posts vacant.
    • 71% of Urdu teaching posts vacant.
    • Sanskrit: Only 9.8% of 5,078 sanctioned teaching posts vacant → Indicates continued preference for Sanskrit.

• Uttar Pradesh case study:
  • Minimal demand for South Indian languages.
  • As per Madhyamik Shiksha Parishad (UP):
    • 1 student registered for Malayalam.
    • 3 students for Tamil.
    • 5 students for Kannada.
  • These students appear as private candidates, suggesting that their schools do not offer these languages.

Implementation Gaps in the Three-Language Formula

• Even among States that agreed to implement the three-language policy, actual execution is uneven.
• As of 2023-24 (LS reply data):
  • Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha: Less than 50% of schools had implemented the three-language formula.
  • Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana: Less than 60% implementation.

Key Takeaways

• Lack of supply & demand plays a larger role than policy enforcement in determining language choices.
• In Hindi-speaking States, Sanskrit dominates as the third language, not a southern language as intended in the 1968 NEP.
• In non-Hindi States, Hindi is the dominant third-language choice.
• Teacher availability heavily influences language choice—languages like Tamil, Telugu, and French are absent due to a shortage of qualified teachers.
• Recent, detailed data on language instruction is urgently needed to assess the current situation and policy effectiveness.

---

How did the Myanmar earthquake occur?

---

Cause of the Earthquake

• The earthquake originated in central Myanmar, about 20 km from Mandalay, a seismically active region.
• It had a magnitude of 7.7 and struck at 12:50 pm local time, followed by strong aftershocks, including one of 6.4 magnitude just 11 minutes later.
• The event was triggered by movement along the Sagaing fault, a major strike-slip fault in Myanmar.
• The earthquake’s shallow depth (10 km) contributed to its devastating impact.

Relevance :GS 1(Geography )

Impact of the Earthquake

• Widespread destruction: Thousands of people died, and infrastructure, including homes, bridges, mosques, and pagodas, suffered severe damage.
• Mandalay, a city with 1.5 million people, was among the worst-hit areas.
• The southern Sagaing fault saw the most destruction due to thicker alluvial deposits, which amplified seismic energy.
• The total death toll is estimated to exceed 10,000, according to USGS models.

Effects in Bangkok

• Despite being 1,000 km away, Bangkok experienced minor structural impacts:
  • A 33-storey high-rise collapsed during construction.
  • A swimming pool on a high-rise building overflowed due to seismic seiches (water oscillations triggered by seismic waves).
• The long-period seismic waves caused tall buildings to sway, amplifying the effects.

Why Eastern India Avoided Damage

• The energy released by the earthquake was directed in a north-south direction, following the trend of the Sagaing fault.
• China’s Yunnan province (north of the fault) also escaped damage due to different geological conditions.

History of Earthquakes Along the Sagaing Fault

• The Sagaing fault runs 1,400 km, from the Andaman Sea to the Eastern Himalayan bend.
• It has experienced several earthquakes over the last century:
  • 1930–1956: Six earthquakes of magnitude 7+.
  • 1839: Ava earthquake (magnitude 7.8), killing 500+ people.
  • 1927: Strong quake felt north of Yangon.
  • 1946: Another magnitude 7.7 event near Mandalay.
  • 2016: A destructive earthquake hit Bagan, an ancient city known for its Buddhist monuments.

Why Southeast Asia is a Seismically Active Region

• The plate boundary in Southeast Asia is among the most tectonically active in the world.
• It results from the collision of the Indian and Eurasian Plates about 40 million years ago.
• Notable seismic events include:
  • 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake (M 9.2) – triggered a transcontinental tsunami.
  • 1792 Megathrust Earthquake (M 8.5) – generated a tsunami in Bay of Bengal and caused soil liquefaction in Chittagong, Bangladesh.
• The Indo-Burmese subduction zone and the Chittagong-Tripura fold belt experience frequent seismic activity.

Geodynamics of the Sagaing Fault

• The Sagaing fault forms the boundary between:
  • Central Myanmar Lowlands and Indo-Burman Range.
• The Burma plate (Burma sliver) exists between the Indian Plate and the Sagaing Fault, due to strain partitioning at the subduction front.
• The fault is a strike-slip fault, accommodating 15-25 mm/year of lateral movement, with an accumulated slippage of 100-700 km.
• It absorbs 50-55% of overall plate motion in the region.
• Similar to the San Andreas Fault (California, USA), it produces shallow earthquakes (10-15 km depth).

Lessons from the 2025 Myanmar Earthquake

• Myanmar is struggling with the aftermath, worsened by civil unrest.
• The Sagaing fault is highly active, meaning future earthquakes are likely.
• India, being one of the most earthquake-prone countries in South Asia, should:
  • Implement scientific safety measures.
  • Strengthen seismic-resistant infrastructure.
  • Improve early warning systems and disaster response mechanisms.

---

Ensure education, hygiene, healthcare in rural areas: SC

---

Supreme Court’s Observation on Rural Development

• The Supreme Court emphasized the importance of hygiene, education, and healthcare as the key pillars for a robust rural India.
• A Bench led by Justice Surya Kant underscored that basic necessities must be addressed before secondary initiatives like public libraries.
• The Court dismissed a petition that sought a directive for the States to establish a public library in every village, stating that libraries, though valuable, may not be the immediate priority.

Relevance : GS 2(Judiciary , Governance)

Budgetary Allocation for Rural Infrastructure

• 10-15% of State budgets should be allocated to improving rural infrastructure, ensuring essential services reach marginalized communities.
• Financial constraints are often cited by States as an excuse for lack of development, but prioritization of resources is crucial for holistic rural upliftment.
• A strong rural infrastructure base is necessary for achieving the vision of a developed India.

Libraries vs. Basic Necessities – The Debate

• The Court acknowledged the role of libraries in shaping knowledge, democratic values, and Constitutional awareness, particularly for children and rural populations.
• However, it questioned whether public libraries should take precedence over essential services like food, water, sanitation, and healthcare.
• Justice Kant posed a fundamental question: Would a starving person prefer a library over food and health services?
• The decision on prioritization, the Court ruled, should be left to policymakers rather than judicial intervention.

Key Challenges in Rural Development

• Healthcare Gaps:
  • Inadequate primary health centers (PHCs), lack of trained medical personnel, and poor infrastructure in rural areas.
  • High maternal and infant mortality rates due to limited access to quality healthcare.

• Education Deficiencies:
  • Insufficient school infrastructure, lack of teachers, and poor access to digital education resources.
  • Inconsistent mid-day meal programs due to logistical and financial limitations.

• Hygiene & Sanitation Issues:
  • Unsafe drinking water, open defecation in some regions despite Swachh Bharat Mission, and poor waste disposal facilities.
  • High incidence of waterborne diseases and malnutrition due to lack of hygiene awareness.

Policy Implications & Recommendations

• State governments should conduct comprehensive surveys on healthcare, water supply, and education gaps before implementing secondary initiatives like libraries.
• Integration of e-libraries and digital literacy programs can complement existing education efforts while addressing financial constraints.
• Strengthening corporate social responsibility (CSR) funding for rural education and healthcare infrastructure.
• Expanding public-private partnerships (PPP) in rural healthcare and digital education access.
• Prioritization framework:
  • Food security & healthcare access → 2. Hygiene & sanitation → 3. Basic education infrastructure → 4. Supplementary resources like libraries.

Supreme Court’s Verdict & Its Broader Impact

• The Court left the final decision on priorities to policymakers, reinforcing the need for evidence-based rural development planning.
• Encouraged States to explore innovative measures like e-libraries within financial constraints.
• The ruling highlights a larger issue of rural neglect and the need for efficient allocation of resources.

---

India’s critical efforts to tackle air pollution could worsen warming

---

Context : The Paradox of Air Pollution and Global Warming

• Air pollution control is essential for public health but could inadvertently accelerate global warming.
• Aerosols, a key component of air pollution, have a cooling effect by reflecting sunlight away from Earth.
• Rapid reduction of aerosols without simultaneous reduction in greenhouse gases could cause a short-term temperature spike.

Relevance : GS 3(Environment and Ecology)

Study Findings on Aerosol Reduction and Temperature Trends

• Regions that cleaned their air in the late 20th century witnessed increased warming trends over time.
• Areas with high aerosol pollution, especially in urban centers with lower human development indices, have experienced less warming due to the “masking effect” of pollution.
• The study warns that abrupt reductions in aerosols could trigger extreme heat events.

Greenhouse Gases vs. Aerosols: Contrasting Climate Effects

• Greenhouse Gases (GHGs): Long-lived (e.g., CO₂ persists for centuries), trap heat, contribute to global warming.
• Aerosols: Short-lived (persist for days to weeks), reflect solar radiation, cool the surface, but disrupt the water cycle.
• Greenhouse gases lead to persistent warming, while aerosols provide temporary cooling.

India’s Energy Dependency and Aerosol Emissions

• Coal-fired thermal power plants generate 70% of India’s electricity, releasing sulphur dioxide (SO₂).
• Sulphate aerosols (formed from SO₂ oxidation) make up 50-60% of India’s aerosol load, contributing to cooling effects.
• Industrialization has historically led to high aerosol emissions, influencing regional climate patterns.

The ‘Invisible Offset’ Effect of Aerosols

• Without aerosols, India’s warming could have been 2°C instead of 0.54°C between 1906-2005.
• Net cooling of 1.5°C from aerosols and land use changes offset greenhouse gas-induced warming.
• Climate projections suggest that aerosol reductions could lead to more rapid warming in India.

Aerosols and Monsoon Rainfall

• Aerosols have a complex relationship with precipitation—they can both enhance and suppress rainfall.
• Global aerosol cooling (~0.6°C) has been unevenly distributed, affecting Indian monsoon patterns.
• Increased aerosol emissions could further disrupt the hydrological cycle and monsoon variability.

Global Case Studies on Aerosol Reductions

• China’s aerosol reduction led to more extreme heatwaves in the Pacific and North America.
• Indian aerosol emissions may have both local and global impacts on climate patterns.
• The Indo-Gangetic Plain is particularly vulnerable due to high aerosol loads and climate sensitivity.

Need for Balanced Climate Policies

• Net-zero carbon emissions is not the ultimate solution; long-term adaptation strategies are crucial.
• Heat action plans must be strengthened, especially in cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Bengaluru.
• Policymakers need to weigh trade-offs—air pollution control benefits public health but can intensify heat stress.

Future Climate Strategy for India

• Simultaneously reduce greenhouse gases and aerosols to manage warming risks.
• Improve heat action plans in highly polluted cities to mitigate heat stress.
• Integrate long-term adaptation policies for vulnerable regions like the Indo-Gangetic plains.
• Develop climate-resilient energy policies, transitioning from coal-based power to cleaner alternatives.

---

Chandrayaan’s ChaSTE takes the moon’s temperature

---

Overview of ChaSTE Experiment

• Chandra’s Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) is the first instrument to measure temperatures in situ near the moon’s south pole.
• Part of the Vikram lander on Chandrayaan-3, which successfully landed on August 23, 2023.
• A thermal probe that penetrates the lunar soil and records temperature variations.
• Findings suggest water ice is more prevalent on the moon than previously expected.

Relevance : GS 3(Science and Technology)

ChaSTE’s Mechanism and Functioning

• The probe is equipped with 10 temperature sensors spaced 1 cm apart along its length.
• Uses a rotation-based deployment mechanism, different from previous hammering-based probes.
• Once deployed, the probe measures temperature variations at different depths.
• Penetrated up to 10 cm into the lunar soil, recording data until September 2, 2023.

Previous Failed Missions for Similar Objectives

• Philae Lander (ESA, 2014, Comet 67P):
  • Attempted to deploy MUPUS (Multi-Purpose Sensors for Surface and Subsurface Science).
  • Failed due to bouncing on landing, preventing deployment.

• InSight Lander (NASA, 2018, Mars):
  • Carried Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package (HP3) with a self-hammering probe (“The Mole”).
  • Low soil friction prevented it from reaching the target depth of 5 m.
  • Despite a year-long effort, temperature sensors failed to gather meaningful data.

Why ChaSTE Succeeded Where Others Failed

• Instead of a hammering mechanism like MUPUS and HP3, ChaSTE used a rotating device to push into the soil.
• Rotation-based deployment provided better soil penetration.
• Successfully measured in situ lunar temperature, a feat no previous mission accomplished.

Scientific and Future Implications

• Validates the presence of water ice in the lunar south pole region.
• Data will be crucial for future lunar missions, especially those planning human colonization.
• Success strengthens India’s lunar exploration capabilities and provides insights into planetary thermophysical properties.
• May influence future deep-space exploration technologies, improving probe deployment mechanisms.