Content

1. Flying Rivers
2. Environmental Surveillance
3. Farmer Suicides in India
4. E-Waste & Health Hazards
5. Safeguarding India’s Digital Economy
6. Accidental Deaths & Natural Hazards
7. Snow Leopard Survey in Himachal Pradesh

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Flying Rivers

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Context

• Why in News: Deforestation in the southern Amazon is weakening the “flying rivers,” threatening regional rainfall, agriculture, and ecosystem stability.
• Definition: Streams of water vapor carried by air currents, originating from the Amazon rainforest and moving westwards.
• Mechanism:
  • Moisture evaporates from the Atlantic Ocean.
  • Trade winds push this moist air inland across the Amazon.
  • Trees act like pumps: absorb water through roots → release moisture via transpiration → amplify rainfall inland.
  • This cycle transfers vast amounts of water thousands of kilometers across South America, particularly to the Andes and beyond.
• Coined: The term was introduced in 2006 by Brazilian climate scientist Carlos Nobre and colleagues.

Relevance

• GS Paper 1 (Geography): Climate systems, rainfall cycles, forest ecosystems.
• GS Paper 3 (Environment, Disaster Management): Deforestation, climate resilience, carbon sinks, tipping points.

Why Flying Rivers Matter

• Rainfall Dependency:
  • Southern Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and even agricultural regions in Argentina depend on this transported rainfall.
• Amazon’s Role:
  • Acts as a continental-scale climate regulator.
  • Prevents regions from extreme droughts by redistributing water.
• Global Climate Stability:
  • Amazon is a carbon sink, storing billions of tons of CO₂.
  • If destabilized → worsens global warming.
• Indigenous & Local Communities:
  • Depend on stable rainfall cycles for farming, fishing, and water security.

Threats to Flying Rivers

• Deforestation:
  • Tree loss reduces transpiration → weaker water vapor transport.
  • Southern Amazon (Peru, northern Bolivia, Brazil’s Cerrado borderlands) most affected.
• Forest Fires: Intensify water cycle disruption.
• Degradation: Not just clear-cutting, but selective logging also weakens moisture recycling.
• Tipping Point Risk:
  • Scientists warn the Amazon may shift to a savanna ecosystem (drier, grassland-like).
  • Consequences: biodiversity collapse + carbon release.

Implications

• Regional:
  • Agriculture in Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia threatened by irregular rainfall.
  • Increased risk of drought in southern Amazon, Pampas, and even hydropower-reliant regions.
• Global:
  • Amazon loses its function as a CO₂ sink → accelerates global climate change.
  • Weather instability far beyond South America (teleconnections in global atmospheric circulation).
• Socio-political:
  • Indigenous communities face livelihood collapse.
  • Water security crises may trigger migration and conflicts.

Scientific Findings & Warnings

• Matt Finer (MAAP – Monitoring of the Andean Amazon Project):
  • Identified hotspots in southern Peru & northern Bolivia.
  • Warns conservation must go beyond land — protect atmospheric flows.
• Carlos Nobre:
  • Advocates zero deforestation immediately.
  • Calls for restoration of at least 0.5 million sq. km of degraded forest.
• Research Trend: Shift from looking at land alone → viewing atmosphere-forest interaction as one ecosystem.

Solutions Suggested

• Zero Deforestation Policy: No tolerance for logging, fires, and land degradation.
• Large-scale Forest Restoration: Half a million sq. km minimum to stabilize cycles.
• New Conservation Categories: Not just land parks but “atmospheric conservation areas” to protect flying rivers.
• International Cooperation:
  • Amazon is not just regional → it’s a global climate commons.
  • Requires regional alliances (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia) + global financing (climate funds, carbon credits).

Broader Lessons for India & World

• Forests as Climate Pumps: Reinforces importance of Western Ghats, Himalayas in India’s monsoon dynamics.
• Tipping Points: Once reached, irreversible ecosystem change (rainforest → savanna) will occur.
• Governance: Shows limits of conventional conservation — need eco-hydrological approaches that safeguard water-atmosphere systems.
• SDGs Link: Directly impacts SDG-6 (water), SDG-13 (climate), SDG-15 (life on land).

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Environmental Surveillance

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Context

• Why in News: India’s expansion of environmental pathogen monitoring (wastewater, soil, audio signals) for early detection of infectious diseases and variants.
• Definition: Monitoring pathogens (viruses, bacteria, parasites) in environmental samples like sewage, soil, hospital effluents, or even audio signatures (cough recordings).
• Purpose: Detect hidden circulation of infectious agents in a community before clinical cases surge.
• Approach: Complements traditional clinical surveillance by capturing infections from both symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals.

Relevance

• GS Paper 2 (Health, Governance): Public health systems, disease surveillance, pandemic preparedness.
• GS Paper 3 (Science & Tech, Environment): Environmental sampling technologies, data science, epidemiology.

Why Environmental Surveillance is Important

• Early Warning System: Pathogen levels in wastewater rise days to weeks before clinical cases peak.
• Captures Asymptomatic Carriers: Traditional surveillance misses those not tested or with mild symptoms.
• Real-time Tracking: Enables daily/weekly updates of community infection burden.
• Variant Detection: Genome sequencing of pathogens in wastewater reveals emerging mutations or new variants (COVID-19 example).
• Cost-Effective: One sewage sample can represent thousands of people — far cheaper than mass clinical testing.
• Programmatic Integration: Helps allocate hospital beds, medicines, vaccines, and public health resources in advance.

How Wastewater Sampling Works

• Sources of Samples:
  • Sewage treatment plants
  • Hospital effluents
  • Public toilets, railway stations, airplanes
• Process:
  • Rigorous collection protocols → lab analysis → PCR tests or sequencing → pathogen load quantified.
• Pathogens Monitored: Viruses (COVID-19, Polio, Influenza, Hepatitis A/E, Rotavirus), bacteria (Cholera, Typhoid), parasites (hookworm, roundworm).

Indian Experience & ICMR’s Initiative

• Polio Surveillance: First wastewater program in Mumbai, 2001, crucial in polio eradication.
• COVID-19: Environmental monitoring was initiated in five Indian cities; continued post-pandemic for variant tracking.
• ICMR 2025 Plan:
  • Surveillance for 10 viruses (includes avian influenza, polio, COVID-19, hepatitis, etc.)
  • Across 50 cities, with standardised protocols.
• Current Gaps:
  • Limited data sharing across institutions.
  • Lack of national template/framework for surveillance.
  • Mostly project-driven, not integrated into national health surveillance systems.

Global Practices & Lessons

• 40+ years of use: Wastewater-based epidemiology used worldwide for measles, cholera, and polio.
• COVID-19: Countries like Netherlands, USA, and Australia ran nationwide wastewater monitoring networks to anticipate case surges.
• Global Health Security: Helps detect imported pathogens (airplane wastewater sampling for SARS-CoV-2).

Emerging Frontiers in Environmental Surveillance

• Audio Surveillance: Using cough recordings in public spaces + AI/ML to predict prevalence of respiratory diseases.
• Soil & River Sampling: For parasitic infections, AMR (antimicrobial resistance), and zoonotic spillovers.
• Metagenomics: Identifies novel pathogens from environmental samples before outbreaks occur.

Challenges for India

• Technical: Standardised protocols for collection, storage, sequencing.
• Institutional: Need a national wastewater surveillance framework, not scattered projects.
• Data Integration: Must link environmental data with Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP).
• Funding & Capacity: Sustained investments needed; avoid short-lived project cycles.
• Privacy & Ethics: Must ensure aggregate data use; no targeting of specific communities.

Way Forward

• Develop National Wastewater Surveillance System (NWSS): On the lines of US CDC’s program.
• Integrate into IDSP & Health Grid: Combine environmental and clinical surveillance.
• Open Data Protocols: Standard templates across states/institutions.
• Expand to Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Tracking: Major emerging health threat.
• International Collaboration: Share methods and results with WHO’s Global Environmental Surveillance Network.

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Farmer Suicides in India

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NCRB Findings (2023)

• Why in News: NCRB 2023 data shows persistent agrarian distress with over 10,000 farm-related suicides, concentrated in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
• Total suicides in India: 1,71,418
• From farming sector: 10,786 (≈6.3% of total suicides)
  • Farmers/Cultivators: 4,690 (≈43%)
  • Agricultural labourers: 6,096 (≈57%)
• Gender breakdown:
  • Farmers: 4,553 male, 137 female
  • Agricultural workers: 5,433 male, 663 female
• State-wise burden:
  • Maharashtra: 38.5% (highest)
  • Karnataka: 22.5%
  • Andhra Pradesh: 8.6%
  • Madhya Pradesh: 7.2%
  • Tamil Nadu: 5.9%
  • States like Bihar, West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand, Himachal, North-East (except Assam) → reported zero farm suicides.

Relevance

• GS Paper 1 (Society): Agrarian distress, social consequences of suicides.
• GS Paper 2 (Governance, Welfare): Policy gaps in MSP, credit, trade, welfare schemes.
• GS Paper 3 (Economy, Agriculture): Farm economics, cotton crisis, climate change impacts.

Historical Trends & Continuity

• Farmer suicides have been a persistent crisis since the mid-1990s (post-liberalisation period).
• NCRB data shows >10,000 farm suicides annually in 2021, 2022, 2023.
• Concentration in cotton and soybean belts → Vidarbha, Marathwada (Maharashtra), northern Karnataka, Telangana, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
• Pattern reflects a regional agrarian distress, not uniformly spread across India.

Underlying Causes of Farmer Suicides

• Economic Distress:
  • High input costs (seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, energy).
  • Low and unstable output prices (esp. cotton, soybean).
  • Indebtedness to private moneylenders and microfinance agencies.
• Policy-Linked Issues:
  • MSP coverage inadequate, procurement limited to rice/wheat → non-MSP crops vulnerable.
  • Waiver of cotton import duty (11%) seen as worsening distress by making Indian cotton less competitive.
  • Trade treaties (FTAs, tariff reductions) viewed as threats to domestic farmers.
• Environmental Stress:
  • Rainfall variability, drought-prone regions like Marathwada.
  • Climate change intensifies crop failure risk.
• Social Factors:
  • Debt traps, family obligations, lack of social safety nets.
  • Limited mental health outreach in rural areas.
• Labour Vulnerability:
  • Agricultural workers face irregular wages, seasonal unemployment, no land ownership, and weaker bargaining power.

Structural Dimensions

• Cotton Crisis:
  • Bt cotton adoption raised costs (seeds, pesticide dependence).
  • Global cotton price fluctuations hurt smallholders.
• Soybean Belts:
  • Price volatility in global edible oil markets.
  • Competition from cheaper imports.
• Dual Crisis:
  • Cultivators trapped by debt + labourers trapped in underemployment.
• State-specific variations:
  • Maharashtra = “epicentre” → Vidarbha/Marathwada termed “farmer graveyards”.
  • Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh face similar rainfed agriculture risks.

Political-Economic Criticism

• Farmer unions (AIKS, others) argue:
  • Union govt. “failed to grasp systemic agrarian crisis”.
  • Policies like import duty cuts on cotton benefit foreign producers (esp. U.S.) while harming Indian farmers.
  • Trade liberalisation (FTAs) → “tariff terrorism” → domestic farm sector undermined.
• NCRB data itself questioned by farmer leaders (argue undercounting, non-inclusion of landless workers, exclusion of attempted suicides).

Possible Solutions & Way Forward

• Policy & Economic Measures:
  • Expand MSP coverage to non-rice/wheat crops (esp. cotton, soybean, pulses).
  • Strengthen procurement in distress-hit regions.
  • Crop insurance (PMFBY) → needs better implementation and faster claim settlement.
  • Regulate input costs (Bt seeds, fertiliser subsidies).
• Debt Relief & Credit Reform:
  • Address dependency on private moneylenders.
  • Strengthen rural cooperative credit and Kisan Credit Card outreach.
• Structural Diversification:
  • Encourage crop diversification, allied activities (livestock, dairy, horticulture).
  • Promote value-addition and agro-processing to buffer market shocks.
• Social & Mental Health Support:
  • Tele-MANAS (14416) helpline is a start → but rural mental health infrastructure must expand.
  • Community-based counselling and awareness campaigns needed.
• Long-Term Measures:
  • Rural employment schemes (MGNREGA, PM-KUSUM) to reduce sole dependence on crop income.
  • Resilient agriculture via water management, climate-resilient seeds, watershed development.

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Cost of convenience: health hazards as a side effect of using digital tools

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Basics

• Why in News: India generated 2.2 million tonnes of e-waste in 2025, with informal recycling hubs causing severe health and environmental hazards.
• Definition:
  • E-waste = discarded electronic products (mobiles, laptops, TVs, circuit boards, batteries, cables, etc.).
  • It is the fastest-growing solid waste stream globally.
• India’s Position (2025):
  • Generated 2.2 million tonnes of e-waste (3rd largest after China & USA).
  • Growth of 150% since 2017–18 (0.71 MT).
  • At current pace, volumes may double by 2030.

Relevance

• GS3 (Environment & Health): Pollution, Waste management, Urban sustainability.
• GS2 (Governance & Policy): Implementation challenges of E-waste Rules, federal role in regulation.

Current Status in India

• Geography:
  • Urban epicentres → 60% of e-waste from 65 cities.
  • Hotspots: Seelampur & Mustafabad (Delhi), Moradabad (UP), Bhiwandi (Maharashtra).
• Recycling ecosystem:
  • 322 formal recycling units with 2.2 MT capacity exist.
  • But >50% e-waste is handled informally by kabadiwalas, scrap dealers, and home-based workshops.
• Methods used informally: manual dismantling, acid leaching, open burning, unsafe dumping.
• Toxins released:
  • Heavy metals → lead, cadmium, mercury, chromium.
  • POPs → dioxins, furans, brominated flame retardants.
  • PM2.5/PM10 from burning wires.
• Air quality impact:
  • Seelampur’s PM2.5 > 300 μg/m³, ~12× WHO safe limit (25 μg/m³).

Health Hazards

1. Respiratory illnesses
   1. Inhalation of fine particles → chronic bronchitis, asthma, wheezing, chest tightness.
   1. 2025 Indian study: 76–80% informal workers showed chronic respiratory symptoms.
2. Neurological & Developmental damage
   1. Lead & mercury exposure → cognitive decline, reduced IQ, behavioral issues, endocrine disruption.
   1. Children at highest risk → exposure via soil, dust, contaminated water.
   1. WHO: millions of children globally exposed to unsafe lead due to e-waste.
3. Skin & Eye Disorders
   1. Direct handling of CRTs, acids, metals → rashes, burns, dermatitis, eye irritation.
   1. Some clusters report up to 100% prevalence of skin problems among recyclers.
4. Reproductive & Genetic impacts
   1. Increased miscarriages & preterm births in contaminated areas.
   1. DNA damage, oxidative stress, immune system alterations in children.
5. Syndemic effects
   1. Health impacts worsen when combined with poverty, malnutrition, unsafe housing, lack of healthcare.
   1. Creates overlapping disease burden among urban poor.

Policy Framework

• E-Waste Management Rules, 2022:
  • Strengthened Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).
  • Mandatory registration of dismantlers/recyclers.
  • Incentives for formal recycling.
• Gaps:
  • Weak enforcement → only 43% of e-waste formally processed (2023–24).
  • Informal sector dominates.
  • EPR credit price caps → legal disputes with manufacturers.

Global Context

• China (Guiyu): major informal hub with severe pollution & child health crises.
• West Africa (Benin, Ghana): high respiratory illnesses among informal workers.
• US & EU: focus on advanced recycling tech + export bans on e-waste to developing countries.

Way Forward

1. Formalisation of informal sector
   1. Integrate kabadiwalas → skill training, PPE, social security.
   1. Provide safe infrastructure & access to healthcare.
2. Regulatory Strengthening
   1. Empower Pollution Control Boards.
   1. Digital tracking of e-waste.
   1. Mandatory audits & penalties for non-compliance.
3. Health Interventions
   1. Medical surveillance, regular camps in hotspots.
   1. Long-term studies on children’s health.
4. Technology & Innovation
   1. Invest in low-cost, decentralised recycling technologies.
   1. R&D for eco-friendly dismantling methods.
5. Public Awareness & Education
   1. School-level inclusion of e-waste education.
   1. Mass campaigns to encourage responsible disposal.

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How to safeguard India’s digital economy ?

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Basics

• Why in News: Rising cybercrime targeting UPI, digital banking, and e-commerce, exposing weaknesses in institutional preparedness and consumer protection.
• India’s digital leap: Driven by affordable internet, UPI-based digital banking, e-commerce, and digital governance.
• Impact: Enhanced inclusion, convenience, and growth in financial and social services.
• Problem: Parallel rise of cybercrime, exploiting system loopholes and human psychology.

Relevance

• GS2 (Governance, Security): Institutional capacity, citizen trust, regulatory reforms.
• GS3 (Science & Tech, Internal Security): Cybercrime, AI/ML applications in governance.

Nature of Cybercrime in India

• Techniques used:
  • Phishing (fake links/emails to steal data).
  • OTP/UPI frauds (victims unknowingly authorise transfers).
  • Loan scams & job scams (targeting vulnerable groups).
  • Identity theft (misuse of Aadhaar, PAN, bank details).
  • Remote access scams (malicious apps give criminals control of devices).
  • Digital arrests (impersonation of police/customs, fake warrants, psychological coercion).
• Key Feature: Relies less on hacking skills, more on social engineering (fear, urgency, trust, greed).

Vulnerable Groups

• Elderly → often digitally illiterate but with savings.
• Rural populations → low awareness, weak cyber literacy.
• Job seekers & loan applicants → easily lured by fake offers.
• Even educated urban users → break down under psychological pressure.

Case Illustrations

• Retired banker (78 yrs): lost ₹23 crore across 21 transactions.
• Lawmaker’s wife: lost ₹14 lakh but recovered due to swift action.
• Lesson: Delay = irreversible loss, Swift reporting = possible recovery.

Institutional Gaps

• Banks:
  • Limit themselves to advisories.
  • Weak KYC → mule accounts thrive.
  • Fail to detect unusual patterns (multi-crore debits unchecked).
  • Customer data leaks widely.
• Cyber police:
  • Understaffed, under-skilled, under-equipped.
  • Poor use of the 24-hour golden window.
  • Victims trapped in delays → criminals escape.
• Systemic apathy: Thousands of daily cases; many unreported due to stigma & lack of trust.

Evolving Nature of Fraud

• Earlier → ATM skimming, small-scale theft.
• Now → organised, large-scale, tech-enabled, cross-border.
• Fraud patterns:
  • Abnormally large transfers vs normal profile.
  • Multiple high-value debits in short intervals.
  • Sudden inflows into dormant/fake KYC accounts (mule accounts).
  • Quick layering → money dispersed across small banks, recovery blocked.

Possible Interventions

• AI/ML-based monitoring:
  • Personalised transaction profiles → detect deviations.
  • Anomaly detection for mule accounts & abnormal activity.
  • Temporary holds on suspicious transactions.
• Cross-institutional cooperation:
  • Real-time fraud intelligence sharing between banks, telecoms, and cyber police.
  • Immediate alerts across the financial ecosystem.
• Empowering Cyber Police:
  • AI-driven real-time detection tools.
  • 24×7 response teams within the golden 24-hour window.
  • Global data-sharing & cross-border cooperation.
• Strengthening Banks:
  • Plug KYC loopholes.
  • Blockchain for secure data & tamper-proof records.
  • Proactive, not advisory-only, approach.

The Way Forward

• Shift from reactive complaint-handling → proactive prevention.
• Adopt protection-first framework: citizen safety & digital trust as foundation of financial stability.
• Swift compensation to victims (RBI mandate) → restore trust.
• Tech solutions (AI, ML, Blockchain) exist → what is missing is institutional will & accountability.

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Accidental Deaths & Natural Hazards

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Basics

• Why in News: NCRB 2023 report highlights deaths from natural causes (lightning, heat stroke, floods), showing rising vulnerability due to climate change.
• Source: NCRB’s 2023 report on Accidental Deaths and Suicides in India.
• Deaths due to forces of nature: 6,444.
• Major natural causes:
  • Lightning strikes → 2,560 deaths (39.7%).
  • Heat stroke → 804 deaths (12.5%).
  • Floods, cold exposure, landslides, torrential rains → remaining share.

Relevance

• GS1 (Geography) → Natural disasters, climate patterns (lightning, floods, heatwaves).
• GS2 (Governance, Welfare) → Public health preparedness, NDMA role, inter-state coordination.
• GS3 (Disaster Management, Environment) → Impact of climate change on mortality.

Other Key Fatalities (2023)

• Snake bites: 10,144 deaths (major killer among natural/animal causes).
• Animal attacks: 1,739 deaths (1,172 due to animal attacks, 567 due to snakebite misclassification within this category).
• Insect/other bites: Also included in natural causes fatalities.

Regional Distribution

• States with highest deaths due to forces of nature:
  • Madhya Pradesh – 397 deaths.
  • Bihar – 345.
  • Odisha – 294.
  • Uttar Pradesh – 287.
  • Jharkhand – 194.
• Specific observations:
  • Odisha → 1,351 deaths from lightning alone (highest for one state).
  • Telangana → 82% of natural deaths due to heat stroke.
  • Himachal, Mizoram, Arunachal, Meghalaya → highest proportion of landslide-related deaths.

Demographic Insights

• Age group most affected:
  • 30–45 years → 34.8%.
  • 45–60 years → 28.8%.
• Cause-specific:
  • Lightning victims → 63.6% of total natural deaths.
  • Heat stroke → highest concentration in Telangana.

Urban–Rural Patterns

• Urban centres:
  • Amritsar → highest overall exposure-related deaths (211 total; 196 due to heat).
  • Other high-burden cities → Ludhiana (50), Dhanbad (11).
• Rural areas: disproportionately affected due to dependence on agriculture and outdoor work.

Comparisons & Trends

• Snake bites (10,144) kill far more than all “forces of nature” combined (6,444).
• Lightning deaths remain the single largest killer in the “natural forces” category.
• Heatwave deaths are rising with climate change, especially in central and southern India.
• NCRB notes under-reporting in states with weaker health and disaster surveillance.

Policy & Governance Implications

• Disaster Preparedness:
  • Strengthen heatwave action plans (early warnings, public cooling shelters).
  • Lightning protection measures (lightning arresters, awareness campaigns for farmers and outdoor workers).
  • Snakebite management → stock antidotes, rural health infrastructure.
• Urban planning: Heat island mitigation (green cover, water bodies).
• Rural safety: Training for farmers, construction workers, outdoor labour.

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Snow Leopard Survey in Himachal Pradesh

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Basics

• Why in News: Latest survey (2024) shows snow leopard population in Himachal Pradesh increased from 51 to 83, reflecting conservation success.
• Species: Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), apex predator, “indicator species” for high-altitude ecosystems.
• Location: Himachal Pradesh’s high-altitude habitats (Spiti, Kinnaur, Lahaul, Greater Himalayan & Pin Valley National Parks).
• Survey Findings:
  • Population increased from 51 (2021) → 83 (2024) (excluding cubs).
  • First comprehensive survey (2018–2021) → second survey completed in 2024.

Relevance

• GS1 (Geography) → Himalayan ecosystems & biodiversity.
• GS2 (Governance) → Role of state in conservation, cooperative federalism in wildlife management.
• GS3 (Environment) → Wildlife conservation, climate change impact on fragile ecosystems.

Survey Methodology

• Conducted by Himachal Forest Department + Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF).
• Techniques Used:
  • 271 camera traps set up across 26,000 sq. km habitat.
  • Use of spatially explicit capture-recapture methods.
  • Identified 44 unique individuals from 262 confirmed detections.
• Coordinated field efforts ensured reliable results → addresses criticism of past underestimation.

Regional Distribution

• Highest Density: Spiti Valley (core snow leopard landscape).
• Other strongholds:
  • Kinnaur, Lahaul, Greater Himalayan NP, Pin Valley NP.
  • Additional detections in Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, Chandratal Sanctuary, Tundah Sanctuary, Kugti Sanctuary, Sechut Sanctuary, Asrang Wildlife Sanctuary.
• District-level: Upper Kinnaur & Tabo reported highest concentrations.

Population Insights

• Estimated range: 67–103 individuals (with 83 as mean estimate).
• Density: 0.16 to 0.53 snow leopards per 100 sq. km, comparable with global snow leopard densities in Central Asia.
• Encouraging trend → indicates stable and possibly recovering population.

Conservation Significance

• Himachal Pradesh → first state in India to complete a scientific snow leopard population estimate.
• Snow leopard = umbrella species → conservation ensures survival of associated high-altitude biodiversity.
• Linked with India’s SECURE Himalaya Project (UNDP + MoEFCC + GEF).
• Survey strengthens India’s international commitments under the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP, 2013).

Challenges Highlighted

• Habitat fragility: Infrastructure projects (roads, dams, tourism).
• Human-wildlife conflict: Attacks on livestock → retaliatory killings.
• Climate change: Shrinking snowline alters prey base (Bharal, ibex).
• Poaching & illegal wildlife trade: Although reduced, remains a threat.

Policy & Governance Implications

• Wildlife Week 2024 highlight → scientific conservation success.
• Supports India’s efforts to align biodiversity conservation with SDG 15 (Life on Land).
• Need for:
  • Expansion of community-based conservation (eco-tourism, compensation for livestock losses).
  • Strengthened monitoring & technology use (drones, AI for camera trap analysis).
  • Cross-border collaboration (snow leopards span India–China–Nepal–Bhutan–Pakistan).

Value Addition

• Scientific Name: Panthera uncia (formerly Uncia uncia), apex predator of the Himalayas.
• IUCN Status: Vulnerable (IUCN Red List, 2023), population declining globally due to habitat loss and poaching.
• Global Range: High-altitude regions of 12 countries – India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, Russia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
• Indian Distribution: Found in five states – Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Habitat Preference: Alpine and subalpine zones (3,000–5,500 m), rocky cliffs, and steep terrain with sparse vegetation.
• Diet: Carnivore; preys on bharal (blue sheep), ibex, marmots, pikas, domestic livestock (in conflict zones).
• Adaptations: Thick fur, wide paws for snow traction, long tail for balance and warmth, camouflaged coat for rocky terrain.
• Reproduction: Breeding season Feb–Mar, gestation ~90–100 days, litter size 1–5 cubs; cubs remain with mother ~18–22 months.
• Threats: Poaching (for fur and bones), retaliatory killings due to livestock predation, climate change shrinking alpine habitat, mining/road construction.
• Conservation Efforts:Project Snow Leopard (MoEFCC, India) – community-based conservation.Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP, 2013) – 12 range countries collaborate.Protected areas: Hemis NP (J&K), Khangchendzonga NP (Sikkim), Pin Valley NP (HP), Great Himalayan NP (HP).