Content
- Redeeming India’s nuclear power promise
- How different constitutional drafts imagined India
- MiG-21: End of an Era
- Apache AH-64E Induction: A Major Leap for Indian Army
- Systemic Failure in Ensuring Safety of Sewer Workers
- Urban India 2030–2050: A Call for Action
Redeeming India’s nuclear power promise
India’s Nuclear Energy Pivot: Budget 2025–26 at a Glance
| Focus Area | Budget Announcements |
| Installed Capacity | Target of 100 GW by 2047 (from 8.18 GW today) |
| Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) | ₹20,000 crore allocated to develop 5 indigenous SMRs by 2033 |
| Private Sector Entry | Legislative reforms to allow private and foreign investment |
| Legal Reforms Pending | Amendments to Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and CLNDA, 2010 |
Relevance: GS 3(Nuclear Energy)
The Historical Trajectory: From Vision to Isolation to Reengagement
| Milestone | Details |
| 1956 | Apsara, Asia’s first research reactor commissioned |
| 1963 | Work begins at Tarapore (first nuclear power reactors in Asia) |
| 1974 | Peaceful Nuclear Explosion → Global isolation |
| 1998 | Pokhran-II → Strategic negotiations begin |
| 2008 | NSG waiver allows India to re-enter the global nuclear market |
| 2010 | CLNDA introduced — slowed foreign participation due to supplier liability clause |
| 2025 | Shift toward private sector and international partnerships for scaling up nuclear power |
Why Nuclear Now? Rationale Behind the Shift
| Strategic Goal | Role of Nuclear Power |
| Energy Security | Provides stable baseload power unlike intermittent renewables |
| Decarbonisation | Low-carbon option to meet Net Zero by 2070 |
| Economic Growth | Powering GDP rise from $4 trillion to $35 trillion by 2047 |
| Urbanisation & Development | India’s per capita power consumption (1,208 kWh) lags far behind China (4,600) and the U.S. (12,500) |
Renewable energy (solar, wind, hydro) accounts for ~50% of capacity but only ~20–25% of actual energy generation due to intermittency.
Reforms on the Horizon: Legal, Regulatory, and Financial
Atomic Energy Act, 1962 – Proposed Changes
| Issue | Reform Needed |
| Monopoly of NPCIL | Allow private ownership & operation under safeguards |
| Fuel Supply & Waste Responsibility | Clear allocation between operator and supplier |
| Foreign Investment | FDI up to 49%, with safeguards on Indian control |
CLNDA, 2010 – Proposed Amendments
| Clause | Problem | Reform |
| Section 17(b) | Makes suppliers liable for accidents—deterring foreign partners | Limit or re-interpret supplier liability to enable partnerships |
Tariff & Commercial Disputes
Current Model – Under Atomic Energy Act — Tariff notified by govt
Dispute Example – NPCIL vs Gujarat Urja Vikas Nigam led to conflicting verdicts
Reform Direction – Move to Electricity Act framework with levelised cost model under CERC
Regulatory Framework
| Body | Current Status |
| AERB | Technically autonomous, but under DAE and not a legal entity |
| Reform Need | Establish an independent, statutory regulator (Bill lapsed in 2011) |
Institutional Strategy: Three-Track Expansion Plan
| Track | Objective |
| Standardised SMRs | Use 220 MW PHWR design for scalable, indigenous Small Modular Reactors |
| Accelerate 700 MW PHWRs | Fast-track land acquisition, licensing, and local supply chains |
| Revive Global Partnerships | Restart stalled talks with France (EDF) and U.S. (Westinghouse, GE-Hitachi) |
Financing & Incentivising Nuclear Power
| Challenge | Details |
| High capital costs | ~$2M/MW for nuclear vs <$1M/MW for coal |
| Lifecycle costs | Nuclear plants last 50–60 years but need funds for decommissioning and waste |
| Classification | Not yet considered “renewable”, hence not eligible for green finance |
- Green financing classification
- Long-term Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs)
- Viability Gap Funding (VGF)
- Special tax incentives for nuclear infrastructure
Private Sector Involvement: Opportunities and Roadblocks
| Company | Potential Role |
| Tata, Adani, Reliance, Vedanta | Build, operate, or co-finance new reactors |
| NTPC-NPCIL JV | Four 700 MW units at Mahi Banswara, Rajasthan |
| REC JV | New financial partnership to support nuclear infrastructure |
JVs with public sector units already underway — but scaling to 100 GW will require private and foreign players.
Global Momentum in Nuclear Energy
| Event | Significance |
| COP28 (Dubai, 2023) | Declaration to triple global nuclear energy |
| IAEA–World Bank 2024 Agreement | Nuclear backed as key for developing economies |
| Ajay Banga (World Bank President) | Called nuclear essential for base-load power in modern economies |
Conclusion: What India Must Now Do
India’s nuclear renaissance must be decisive, comprehensive, and inclusive. The key pillars:
- Legislative reform to allow private participation while ensuring safety, accountability, and public trust
- Global partnerships based on updated liability and financing frameworks
- Institutional overhaul with an independent nuclear regulator
- Green classification and incentives for nuclear as low-carbon energy
- Fast-tracked projects combining scale (700 MW) with modular innovation (SMRs)
Nuclear power is India’s best shot at clean, reliable base-load electricity, essential for a high-growth, low-carbon future.
How different constitutional drafts imagined India
Context: India’s Constitutional Journey Before 1950
Between 1895 and 1948, at least five major constitutional drafts were proposed by diverse political actors—liberals, radicals, socialists, and cultural nationalists. These drafts reflected competing visions of sovereignty, democracy, federalism, economic justice, and identity.
Relevance : GS 2(Constitution and Polity)
The Five Key Drafts: Origins & Philosophical Anchors
| Year | Draft | Author/Group | Ideological Leaning |
| 1895 | Constitution of India Bill | Early nationalists (e.g., B.G. Tilak) | Liberal constitutionalism |
| 1944 | Constitution of Free India | M.N. Roy, Radical Democratic Party | Radical humanist, participatory democracy |
| 1944 | Hindusthan Free State Act | Hindu Mahasabha (right-wing nationalists) | Cultural nationalism + liberal guarantees |
| 1946 | Gandhian Constitution for Free India | Shriman Narayan Agarwal (foreword by Gandhi) | Village-centric decentralism, moral republicanism |
| 1948 | Socialist Party Draft | Jayaprakash Narayan | Democratic socialism |
Comparative Thematic Analysis
1. Democracy & Sovereignty
- 1895 Bill: Emphasised civil liberties and representative democracy but within British dominion.
- Roy’s Draft (1944): Participatory democracy with right to revolt and citizens’ committees—an anti-elitist model.
- Hindusthan Free State: Asserted unitary sovereignty but with democratic elements like elections and judicial review.
- Gandhian Draft: Sovereignty vested in self-sufficient villages, led by moral authority.
- Socialist Draft: Unicameral legislature based on class representation (workers, peasants, intellectuals)—radical departure from liberal democracy.
2. Civil Liberties & Rights
| Draft | Civil Liberties | Socio-Economic Rights |
| 1895 Bill | Strong (speech, property, equality) | Absent |
| Roy (1944) | Strong + Right to revolt | Binding, justiciable socio-economic rights |
| Hindusthan Free State | Strong religious freedoms, anti-discrimination | Minimal economic guarantees |
| Gandhian (1946) | Focus on duties/community over formal rights | Rural economic self-reliance, minimal state role |
| Socialist (1948) | Civil liberties secondary | Core focus: Economic democracy & equality |
Roy’s draft uniquely made socio-economic rights enforceable, unlike the 1950 Constitution’s non-justiciable Directive Principles.
3. Centralisation vs Decentralisation
- Roy & Gandhi: Advocated decentralisation but differed:
- Roy: Federalism + institutional oversight.
- Gandhi: Gram swaraj (village autonomy) rooted in moral norms.
- Socialists & Hindusthan Draft: Supported centralised control for economic restructuring or national cohesion.
- 1895: Silent on federal structure, assuming British-style parliamentary setup.
The tension between unity and local autonomy was central to these early debates.
4. Economic Vision
| Draft | Economic Model |
| Gandhian | Minimalist, rural self-reliance, trusteeship |
| Roy | Democratic economic planning, mixed economy |
| Socialist Party | State socialism, nationalisation, planning commission |
| Hindusthan Draft | Silent on redistribution, strong on cohesion |
| 1895 Bill | No mention of economic justice or planning |
These drafts represent the full spectrum from agrarian minimalism to radical socialism, anticipating later debates on India’s economic model.
5. Cultural Identity & Secularism
- Roy & Socialist drafts: Strongly pluralistic and secular.
- Hindusthan Free State: Advocated one culture/one law, but included explicit religious freedom, no state religion, and caste equality—an ideologically hybrid document.
- Gandhian: Rooted in Indian traditions, emphasised communal harmony over majoritarianism.
- 1895 Bill: Avoided identity politics, sticking to a neutral liberal template.
6. Unique & Surprising Features
| Draft | Unique Element |
| Roy | Right to revolt, participatory oversight via citizens’ committees |
| Gandhian | Right to bear arms despite ahimsa orientation |
| Hindusthan | Right of secession, blending cultural nationalism with formal secularism |
| Socialist | Class-based legislature, gender equality before independence |
| 1895 | Early model of liberal rights under imperial framework |
Contradictions (e.g., Gandhi’s right to arms) reflect realism amid idealism—showing the complexity of state-building ideologies.
Legacy & Influence on the 1950 Constitution
| Draft | Legacy in Final Constitution |
| 1895 Bill | Civil liberties, parliamentary form, separation of powers |
| Roy’s Draft | Bill of Rights, decentralisation, participatory federalism |
| Gandhian | Idea of Panchayati Raj, trusteeship philosophy (Directive Principles) |
| Socialist Draft | Economic justice, land reform, welfare state ideas (Directive Principles) |
| Hindusthan Free State | National cohesion + formal secularism; not adopted but influenced debates on identity |
The 1950 Constitution synthesized diverse ideas — liberal rights, economic justice, decentralisation, and cultural pluralism — though not always in their fullest or radical form.
Conclusion: The Prehistory of the Republic
India’s road to constitutional democracy was not linear. These early drafts:
- Captured ideological ferment and competing futures
- Anticipated modern debates on federalism, rights, secularism, and state power
- Reflected a rich democratic imagination even under colonialism
Though not adopted wholesale, these documents deeply influenced the spirit and substance of India’s final Constitution—testament to the pluralistic and contested origins of Indian republicanism.
MiG-21: End of an Era
Historical Significance
- India procured over 700 MiG-21 fighter aircraft since the 1960s.
- Originally from the Soviet Union, many units were domestically produced by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
- Served as the backbone of the IAF’s combat fleet for over 5 decades.
Relevance : GS 3(Defence , Internal Security)
Operational Use & Combat Record
- Participated in multiple wars:
- 1971 India-Pakistan War
- Kargil Conflict (1999)
- Balakot Airstrikes (2019) – then Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman shot down a Pakistani F-16 using a MiG-21 Bison, before being shot down himself.
Accidents & Safety Concerns
| Metric | Value |
| Total MiG-21 variants inducted | 700 |
| Pilots killed in crashes | 170 |
| Civilians killed in accidents | 40 |
| Common nickname | “Flying Coffin” due to high crash rate |
The MiG-21’s prolonged service and aging design made it a liability despite mid-life upgrades.
Current Status
- Two squadrons remain (36 aircraft):
- 23 Squadron “Panthers”
- No. 3 Squadron “Cobras”
- Both stationed at Nal Airbase, Rajasthan.
Future Impact
- After phasing out MiG-21, IAF’s squadron strength will drop to 29 (against the sanctioned strength of 42).
- This could affect IAF’s full-spectrum deterrence unless new aircraft are inducted swiftly (e.g., Tejas Mk-1A, Rafale, or future AMCA).
Apache AH-64E Induction: A Major Leap for Indian Army
Recent Induction
- On July 23, 2025, Indian Army received first batch of 3 Apache AH-64E helicopters from the U.S. at Hindon Airbase.
- Induction conducted under Joint Receipt Inspection Protocol before final deployment.
Relevance : GS 3(Internal Security , Defence )
Deployment Plans
- Will be deployed by Army Aviation Corps in Jodhpur.
- Focus on Western Front (Pakistan border) and high-altitude warfare (e.g., Ladakh, Siachen).
Strategic Advantages
| Capability | Details |
| Firepower | Equipped with Hellfire missiles, Hydra rockets, and 30mm M230 chain gun |
| Avionics | Advanced sensors, radar, night-vision, and electronic warfare capabilities |
| Terrain Versatility | Optimised for high-altitude and all-weather combat operations |
| AI/ISR Integration | Supports network-centric warfare and real-time battlefield visibility |
The Apache is a combat-proven platform, extensively used in Iraq, Afghanistan, and global theatres.
Modernisation Push
- India signed a deal in 2020 for 6 Apache helicopters exclusively for the Army (separate from IAF’s 22 Apaches).
- Apache marks the first heavy-attack helicopter induction for Indian Army aviation.
Strategic Context
- Boosts independent offensive strike capability for Army, especially in:
- Anti-armor operations
- Close air support
- Border skirmishes with China and Pakistan
Comparative Force Modernisation
| Feature | MiG-21 | Apache AH-64E |
| Entry into Service | 1963 | 2025 (Indian Army) |
| Role | Supersonic fighter aircraft | Heavy attack helicopter |
| Manufacturer | Mikoyan-Gurevich (USSR), HAL | Boeing (USA) |
| Retirement Status | Phasing out | Just inducted |
| Technological Status | Obsolete | State-of-the-art |
Strategic Implications for India
- IAF Combat Readiness Challenges
- Squadron strength shrinking to 29 vs. required 42.
- Urgency to expedite Tejas Mk-1A and Rafale deliveries.
- Risks during a two-front conflict scenario.
- Army Air Power Autonomy
- Apache enhances Army’s strike power without relying on IAF.
- Boosts capability in mountain warfare and border conflicts.
- Strengthens India’s response posture in Western and Northern theatres.
- Indigenisation vs. Imports
- While Apaches are imported, Indian push for Atmanirbhar Bharat continues with HAL’s Light Combat Helicopter (LCH) and Rudra.
- Balanced approach needed: Strategic imports + indigenous development.
Conclusion
The MiG-21 phase-out and Apache induction together represent a generational shift in Indian military aviation:
- A legacy platform exits after decades of both glory and tragedy.
- A modern, lethal system enters, enabling new operational doctrines for the Army.
These developments reflect India’s broader military modernisation drive — but also highlight critical gaps (especially in IAF’s force levels) that must be addressed swiftly to maintain credible deterrence.
Systemic Failure in Ensuring Safety of Sewer Workers
Over 90% of sewer-related deaths in India (2022–23) occurred without the use of any safety gear, reflecting a grim failure of institutional safeguards and persistent hazardous manual cleaning practices despite legal bans on manual scavenging.
Relevance : GS 2(Social Justice)
Data Snapshot: Scale of the Problem
| Metric | Value |
| Total hazardous cleaning deaths analysed | 54 deaths |
| Time Period Covered | 2022–2023 |
| Districts Covered | 17 districts |
| States/UTs Covered | 8 |
| Total deaths (govt. data) | 150 deaths |
| Deaths without any safety gear | 49 out of 54 (90.7%) |
| Deaths with minimal PPE (gloves/gumboots) | 5 cases |
| Deaths where mechanical cleaning gear was used | 2 cases only |
| Deaths with safety training prior to work | 1 case only |
| Consent not taken before work | 27 cases |
| Consent taken but without counselling | 18 cases |
Structural & Legal Context
Legal Provisions
- Manual Scavenging is outlawed under:
- Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013
- Hazardous cleaning without safety gear is illegal under:
- Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers Rules, 2013
- The MS Rules, 2013 require:
- Protective equipment
- Mechanised tools
- Safety training
- Consent and risk communication
Institutional Lapses: Social Audit Insights
1. PPE Availability & Equipment Readiness
- In 47 of 54 deaths, no mechanized equipment or safety gear was available.
- Only two instances reported presence of safety equipment.
- Only one case showed safety training was provided.
- In 45 cases, concerned agencies had no equipment readiness.
Reflects administrative negligence and token compliance with safety norms.
2. Consent & Worker Awareness
- No consent in 27 cases.
- In 18 cases where written consent was taken, no counselling on risks was provided.
- Indicates uninformed and coerced participation in hazardous work.
3. Hiring Patterns: Exploitative Structures
| Hiring Type | No. of Cases |
| Personally/Individually contracted | 38 |
| Government agency employed | 5 |
| Public Sector Unit but subcontracted to private | 3 |
Shows rampant outsourcing and informalisation, diluting accountability.
4. Post-Death Response: Poor Awareness Efforts
- Awareness drives conducted only in 7 deaths (Chennai, Kancheepuram, Satara).
- Indicates reactive rather than preventive approach by authorities.
Policy Update: The NAMASTE Scheme (2023)
Objective:
Eliminate hazardous sewer/septic tank cleaning and ensure dignity and safety for sanitation workers.
Progress (as of July 2025):
| Metric | Value |
| Workers identified under NAMASTE | 84,902 |
| States/UTs covered | 36 |
| Provided with PPE kits/safety gear | ~42,000 (just over 50%) |
Positive start but coverage is still halfway, training and mechanisation lag behind.
Declarations vs. Ground Reality
- Govt. claim: Manual scavenging is eliminated.
- Reality: The same deaths due to manual cleaning of sewers without safety gear indicate persistence of de facto manual scavenging.
- Mismatch between legal abolition and lived experiences.
Recommendations
Legal & Administrative Reforms
- Enforce penal liability on contractors and officials under the MS Rules, 2013.
- Mandate third-party safety audits of all urban local bodies.
Institutional Accountability
- Make mechanisation mandatory across all ULBs (urban local bodies).
- Maintain publicly accessible real-time dashboards for death tracking and equipment readiness.
Worker-Centric Reforms
- Ensure full coverage of PPE kits + training under NAMASTE by 2026.
- Provide life insurance, health cover, and legal aid to families of victims.
Broader Implications
- Social Justice Deficit: Marginalised communities, especially Dalits, continue to bear the brunt of sewer deaths.
- Policy-Implementation Gap: Repeated declarations of ending manual scavenging ring hollow unless backed by institutional transformation and mechanisation.
- India’s Urban Shame: In a Smart Cities and Swachh Bharat era, manual sewer deaths are a stark contradiction to urban development claims.
Conclusion
Despite strong laws and public schemes like NAMASTE, manual sewer cleaning remains deadly due to:
- Institutional apathy
- Informalisation of labour
- Weak enforcement of safety protocols
- Poor state capacity in local bodies
The way forward lies not just in legal bans, but in mechanisation, accountability, and dignity for sanitation workers. Until then, the phrase “manual scavenging has been eliminated” will remain a bureaucratic illusion.
Urban India 2030–2050: A Call for Action
Key Highlights of the Report
- Prepared by: World Bank in collaboration with Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).
- Title: Towards Resilient and Prosperous Cities in India.
- Main Forecasts:
- By 2050, India’s urban population to reach 951 million.
- By 2030, cities to generate 70% of all new employment.
- Estimated investment needed: $2.4 trillion by 2050 to make cities climate-resilient.
- If cities don’t adapt, annual flood-related losses may reach:
- $5 billion by 2030
- $30 billion by 2050
Relevance : GS 1(Society ) , GS 2(Social Issues)
Urban Resilience Challenges
1. Rising Urban Climate Risks
- Urban India faces two major shocks:
- Flooding
- Extreme heat
- Study of 10 major Indian cities (1983–2016) shows:
- 71% increase in dangerous heat events.
- Urban Heat Island Effect: Cities get hotter at night due to concrete and asphalt trapping heat.
2. Concrete Urbanization Worsens Flooding
- Increased construction limits rainwater absorption.
- Cities growing in flood-prone areas without risk adaptation.
- Heat-related deaths may exceed 3 lakh per year by 2050 if unaddressed.
Governance & 74th Constitutional Amendment Issues
- 74th Amendment (1992): Provided autonomy to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
- Problem: Many states have not fully implemented it.
- Cities with greater decision-making autonomy have:
- Mobilized more resources.
- Monetized assets better.
- Shown higher accountability.
- World Bank recommends devolution of power to local governments for better urban resilience.
Key Recommendations from the Report
- National & State-Level Reforms:
- Improve risk assessments.
- Mobilize private investments.
- Set urban resilience standards.
- Create a financing roadmap.
- Local Interventions:
- Urban greening, cool roofs, early/late work shifts to beat heat.
- Resilient infrastructure, particularly in high-risk flood zones.
- Financial Needs:
- $150 billion needed for flood resilience in next 15 years alone.
Policy Implications for India
- Cities are economic growth engines but increasingly vulnerable.
- Climate adaptation must be mainstreamed in urban planning, especially in Tier-1 and Tier-2 cities.
- Implementation of the 74th Amendment is key to empower cities.
- Urban resilience needs to be viewed as an investment, not a cost.