CONTENTS

1. 16th Century Copper Plate Inscriptions Discovered in Tamil Nadu
2. Google Enters First Corporate Agreement for Nuclear Energy from Small Modular Reactors
3. Mission Mausam
4. Kala-Azar
5. Space Docking Experiment
6. Han River

---

 16th Century Copper Plate Inscriptions Discovered in Tamil Nadu

---

Context:

A remarkable discovery was made at the Sri Singeeswarar temple in Mappedu village, Tiruvallur district, with the unearthing of copper plate inscriptions dating back to the 16th century. These inscriptions narrate a village donation by the Raja of Chandragiri to Brahmins. The inscriptions, engraved in the year 1513, during the time of King Krishnadevaraya, are in Sanskrit and the Nandinagari script and thus tell us much about the administrative and cultural practices of the period.

Relevance:

GS I: History

Dimensions of the Article:

1. Vijayanagara Empire
2. Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529 A.D.)
3. About Sri Singeeswarar Temple

Vijayanagara Empire

Foundation and Dynastic Rule

• The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 by Harihara I (Hakka) and Bukka Raya I in the Deccan region of Southern India.
• Hampi, known for its architectural grandeur and strategic location, served as the capital and was later recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1986.
• The empire was governed by four major dynasties: Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu, each contributing to its development and expansion.

Cultural and Economic Flourishing

• The empire reached its cultural and political zenith during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya from the Tuluva Dynasty, expanding its territories and enhancing its architectural landscape.
• Vijayanagara is famed for its monumental temples like the Virupaksha and Vittala temples, which showcase intricate carvings and expansive courtyards, reflecting the empire’s architectural innovation.
• The empire engaged in significant trade with the Portuguese, exchanging spices, cotton, and other goods for military technology like guns and Arabian horses.

Military and Political Dominance

• For over two centuries, the Vijayanagara Empire was a dominant force in Southern India, acting as a bulwark against invasions from the north and maintaining stability in the region.
• The empire was frequently in conflict with the Deccan Sultanates and later the Mughals, often over strategic territories like the Raichur Doab, an area rich in resources.

Relations with the Portuguese

• he Portuguese capture of Goa in 1510 facilitated an alliance with Vijayanagara, bolstering the empire’s military capabilities and enhancing its maritime trade routes.

Decline and Aftermath

• Battle of Talikota: The empire faced a severe setback in 1565 at the Battle of Talikota, where it was decisively defeated by a coalition of Deccan Sultanates, leading to the sacking and abandonment of Hampi.
• Gradual Decline: After the Battle of Talikota, the empire continued in a diminished state until about 1660, with its political and military influence waning significantly.

Legacy

• The legacy of the Vijayanagara Empire is preserved in its ruins at Hampi and its contributions to South Indian architecture, religion, and the arts, which continue to be studied and admired for their historical significance and artistic value.

Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529 A.D.)

• Krishnadevaraya of the Tuluva dynasty was the most famous king of the Vijayanagar Empire
• According to Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveler “Krishnadevaraya was the most feared and perfect king there could possibly be”.
• He conquered Sivasamudram in 1510 A.D and Raichur in 1512A.D
• In 1523 A.D. he captured Orissa and Warangal
• His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River Cauvery in the south; the Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in the East.

Krishnadevaraya‘s Contributions

• Krishnadevaraya was an able administrator, and it was during his period the Vijayanagar Empire reached its zenith of glory.
• He built large tanks and canals for irrigation and he also developed the naval power understanding the vital role of overseas trade.
• He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese and Arab traders.
• He patronized art and architecture and was a great scholar himself.
• He was an eminent scholar and authored works such as Madalasa Charita, Satyavedu Parinaya, Rasamanjari, Jambavati Kalyana, and Amuktamalkyada.
  • Fluent in multiple languages, he supported poets writing in Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil, and Kannada. 
• Ashtadiggajas is the collective title given to the eight Telugu scholars and poets in the court of Krishnadevaraya, and they are:
  • Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram, he was also known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha
  • Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
  • Madayagari Mallana
  • Dhurjati
  • Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi
  • Pingali Surana
  • Ramaraja Bhushana
  • Tenali Ramakrishna

About Sri Singeeswarar Temple:

• It is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• This temple is at Mappedu village near Perambakkam in Thiruvallur District of Tamil Nadu.
• The temple was built by the great Aditya Karikalan II in 976 AD
• He is the father of the great Chola emperor Rajaraja Cholan, who built the Thanjavur Big Temple.
• In the later period, under Krishnadevaraya, his viceroy Dalavai Ariyanadha Mudaliar, exercised influence and built the Rajagopuram-Main Tower, compound wall, and 16-pillar Mandap in the year 1501.
• The Temple is constructed in the style of Dravidian architecture, and the Rajagopuram has 5 tiers.
• The chief deity is called Singeeswarar. Singeeswarar is found in the form of a slightly big Shiva Lingam in the sanctum.

-Source: The Hindu

---

Google Enters First Corporate Agreement for Nuclear Energy from Small Modular Reactors

---

Context:

Recently, Google announced the “first corporate agreement” to buy nuclear energy from multiple small modular reactors (SMR). These SMRs will be developed by Kairos Power. The initial phase of work will bring up the first SMR by 2030, and subsequent deployments will continue through 2035. Per Google, this deal will provide 500 MW of carbon-free power to U.S. electricity grid. The search giant said this agreement will help in the development of AI technologies to power major scientific advances.

Relevance:

GS III: Nuclear Technology

Dimensions of the Article:

1. Google Interest in Nuclear Energy
2. Broader Tech Industry Engagement
3. Some Controversy and Challenges with Nuclear Energy
4. Nuclear Energy Today with the U.S. Government

Google Interest in Nuclear Energy

• Energy requirements of AI: All the AI-related technologies and data centers consume a lot of energy. And with its increasing applications, similarly the power needs will grow to power the system continuously.
• Sustainability Goals: Google would also like to decrease its greenhouse gas emissions even though the company is growing from its operations. Assuming that nuclear energy was a non-carbon option without a variability problem, this seems to fit with its clean energy plan.
• Next Generation Nuclear Technologies: Next-generation nuclear reactors are of special interest to Google because of their smaller footprint and quicker deployment capabilities due to its more modular design.

Broader Tech Industry Engagement

• Microsoft: In collaboration with Constellation, will tap nuclear power from the Crane Clean Energy Center as part of its aim to decarbonize the grid.
• Amazon: Entered multiple deals to further nuclear energy projects, including investment in SMRs (Small Modular Reactors) and partnerships that will directly power its data centers by nuclear energy.
• OpenAI and Sam Altman: This investment in oklo and Helion nuclear startups suggests the direction for technological leaders who believe that nuclear energy is a future- viable option for further technological developments.

Some Controversy and Challenges with Nuclear Energy

• Safety Concerns: Despite many countries considering nuclear energy to be an ideal solution, the background of nuclear energy has always been controversial with most severe accidents being associated with Chernobyl and Fukushima disasters leaving permanent environmental impacts and public fears.
• Environmental Opposition: Groups, like Friends of the Earth, oppose nuclear power because of its perceived hazards, particularly in earthquake-prone areas, and past challenges with both waste and accidents.
• Small Modular Reactors (SMRs): One of the new bright promises for nuclear futures is that SMRs potentially offer reduced cost, greater safety designs, and a higher probability of deployment in different sites because they are much smaller in size.

Nuclear Energy Today with the U.S. Government

• Strategic Energy Planning: The U.S. Department of Energy views nuclear power as a core component of the national clean energy strategy, reducing carbon emissions and maintaining energy independence.
• Global Leadership: There is strategic focus on regaining U.S. leadership in nuclear technology primarily because more and more nations worldwide are entering nuclear energy, and America cannot afford to play a losing game with countries like Russia and China.

Small Modular Reactors

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are advanced nuclear reactors designed to have a smaller power capacity compared to traditional nuclear power reactors. Here are the key characteristics, advantages, safety features, and disadvantages of SMRs:

Characteristics:

• Small: SMRs have a power capacity of up to 300 MW per unit, which is about one-third of the generating capacity of conventional nuclear reactors.
• Modular: SMRs are designed to be modular and portable. Components can be factory-assembled and transported as units to installation sites.
• Reactors: SMRs use nuclear fission to generate heat for electricity production.

Advantages:

• Efficiency: SMRs are designed for high capacity factors (exceeding 90%) and can produce a significant amount of low-carbon electricity.
• Hybrid Energy Systems: SMRs can complement renewable energy sources by providing consistent power, enhancing overall system efficiency.
• Off-Site Manufacturing: Factory assembly of components saves construction time and reduces costs.
• Lower Costs: SMRs are designed for cost-effectiveness, requiring less fuel and fewer staff for assembly, maintenance, and operation.
• Flexibility: SMRs can adjust electricity generation based on demand, making them suitable for remote locations.
• Site Repurposing: SMRs can be installed in existing thermal power plant sites by repurposing infrastructure.

Safety Features:

• Reduced Risk: SMRs are designed with lower core damage frequency and radioactive contamination compared to conventional nuclear power plants (NPPs).
• Enhanced Seismic Isolation: SMRs incorporate advanced seismic isolation techniques for improved safety during earthquakes.
• Passive Safety: SMRs feature passive safety systems, minimizing the potential release of radioactive materials.

-Source: The Hindu

---

Mission Mausam

---

Context:

Mission Mausam, launched by the government last month, aims to not just improve weather forecasting in the country but also ‘manage’ certain weather events, and on demand, enhance or suppress rainfall, hail, fog and, later, lightning strikes. For effective weather modification, one of the most important areas is cloud physics, in which India will have to strengthen research. Towards this end, India is establishing a first-of-its-kind cloud chamber at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune.

Relevance:

GS: Government Policies and Interventions

Dimensions of the Article:

1. What is a cloud chamber?
2. Using the Cloud Chamber for Atmospheric Research
3. India’s Experience with Cloud Seeding
4. Mission Mausam

What is a cloud chamber?

• A cloud chamber resembles a closed cylindrical or tubular drum, inside which water vapour, aerosols, etc. are injected. Under the desired humidity and temperature inside this chamber, a cloud can develop.
• The Pune facility will allow scientists to study the seed particles that form cloud droplets or ice particles in a sustained manner.
• Many countries have basic cloud chambers, which have limited functionalities and scope to perform specific studies.
• With Mission Mausam, however, India is building a cloud chamber with convection properties, as required to study Indian monsoon clouds. Globally, there are only a handful of convective cloud chambers.

Why is India building a convective cloud chamber?

• Cloud physics basically involves the study of cloud behaviour during normal and extreme conditions; intra-particle interactions inside a cloud; the formation of rain droplets and ice particles; the influence of moisture added into the atmosphere due to cyclones or low pressure systems; and interactions between different cloud layers, among others.
• The objective of establishing a convective cloud chamber is to gain a better understanding of cloud physics under conditions commonly affecting Indian weather systems. Thereafter, this knowledge can be used for strategic planning of weather modification.

Using the Cloud Chamber for Atmospheric Research

Scientists are planning to utilize the cloud chamber as an innovative tool to simulate and study various atmospheric conditions that affect Indian weather and climate, particularly monsoon behavior. Here’s how they intend to use this technology:

Tailoring Environmental Conditions:

• The convective cloud chamber will allow scientists to manipulate physical and atmospheric parameters such as temperature, humidity, and convective conditions. This flexibility is crucial for creating controlled environments that mimic natural weather patterns, especially those influencing monsoons.

Testing and Validation of New Theories:

• According to Thara Prabhakaran, a senior scientist at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), the chamber will be used to test new ideas and theories in cloud physics. The goal is to gain a deeper understanding of monsoon cloud dynamics and improve predictive meteorological models.

Development of Advanced Instrumentation:

• Over the next 18-24 months, the focus will be on developing sophisticated instruments and probes. These tools are essential for precisely measuring and analyzing the minute properties of clouds within the chamber.
• The instrumentation will support experiments like seed particle injection, which helps simulate and study different environmental conditions within the controlled setup of the chamber.

Civil Construction and Future Experiments:

• The civil construction of the cloud chamber is scheduled for the coming months, setting the stage for future experiments and research activities.

India’s Experience with Cloud Seeding

India’s engagement with cloud seeding has been explored through the Cloud Aerosol Interaction and Precipitation Enhancement Experiment (CAIPEEX) program, conducted in multiple phases over a decade:

Efficacy of Cloud Seeding:

• The final phase of CAIPEEX involved targeted experiments in the rain-shadow regions of Maharashtra’s Solapur district between 2016 and 2018.
• Results from these experiments indicated that cloud seeding could significantly enhance rainfall, with increases up to 46 percent under optimal conditions.

Geographical Impact:

• The impact of cloud seeding was particularly noted in a 100 square kilometer area downwind of the seeding location, where rainfall increases averaged about 18 percent.

Limitations Recognized:

• Despite some success, it is widely acknowledged that cloud seeding cannot singularly solve rainfall inadequacy issues. It is not considered a “silver bullet” solution but rather one of several potential methods to augment water resources under specific conditions.

Mission Mausam:

• Mission Mausam would be a truly transformative and far-reaching initiative to significantly improve India’s capabilities in meteorology and climate science. The mission focuses its efforts on increased research, development, and operational capability in atmospheric sciences.
• The mission seeks to improve the height of weather surveillance, modeling, and forecasting and general management of meteorological services with advanced observation systems, high-performance computing, and modern technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML).
• The mission aims to provide much-enhanced accuracy and timeliness of weather and climate information for a wide range of applications from monsoon forecasting to alert the public about air quality and other severe weather conditions such as cyclones, fog, hail, and rainfall. Capacity building and raising public awareness about climate
• phenomena are also targeted.
• Mission Mausam will implement state-of-the-art radars, satellite systems with advanced sensors, high-performance supercomputers, and sophisticated Earth system models. It will also apply a GIS-based automated Decision Support System for disseminating data in real-time and to devise improved response strategies .
• Implementation Framework : The three institutes under the Ministry of Earth Sciences will lead the project:
  • India Meteorological Department (IMD)
  • Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM)
  • National Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF)
• These institutes will join forces with various institutions, based in this country as well as abroad, be it an academic or an industry partner, and would accelerate innovation and the transfer of knowledge among
• meteorological global communities.
• Mission Mausam will benefit thousands of stakeholders across sectors such as agriculture, disaster management, defense, environment, aviation, water resources, power generation, tourism, transportation, energy, and healthcare. It would also enhance the decision-making process in urban planning, transportation infrastructures, offshore operations, and environmental monitoring.

-Source: Indian Express

---

Kala-Azar

---

Context:

India is close to achieving the elimination of Kala-azar as a public health problem, meeting the World Health Organization (WHO) certification criteria.  

Relevance:

GS III- Health, Prelims

About Kala Azar

• Kala-azar is a slow progressing indigenous disease caused by a protozoan parasite of genus Leishmania.
• In India Leishmania donovani is the only parasite causing this disease.
• The Kala-azar is endemic to the Indian subcontinent in 119 districts in four countries (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal).
• This disease is the second-largest parasitic killer in the world. Elimination is defined as reducing the annual incidence of Kala Azar (KA) to less than 1 case per 10,000 people at the sub-district level.
• It is a neglected tropical disease affecting almost 100 countries.
• Neglected tropical diseases are a diverse group of communicable diseases that prevail in tropical and subtropical conditions in 149 countries.

There are three types of leishmaniasis

• Visceral leishmaniasis, which affects multiple organs and is the most serious form of the disease.
• Cutaneous leishmaniasis, which causes skin sores and is the most common form.
• Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis, which causes skin and mucosal lesions.

The Visceral leishmaniasis, which is commonly known as Kala-azar in India, is fatal in over 95% of the cases, if left untreated.

Symptoms of Kala azar

• It is associated with fever, loss of appetite (anorexia), fatigue, enlargement of the liver, spleen and nodes and suppression of the bone marrow.
• It also increases the risk of other secondary infections.

Diagnosing Kala azar

• The first oral drug found to be effective for treating kala-azar is miltefosine.
• The most common method of diagnosing kala azar is by dipstick testing. However, this method is highly problematic.

Where has kala-azar been detected in India?

• In West Bengal, the districts where the maximum number of cases were registered include Darjeeling, Malda, Uttar Dinajpur, Dakshin Dinajpur and Kalimpong.
• The districts of Birbhum, Bankura, Purulia, and Murshidabad have also reported a few cases, while none have been detected in Kolkata yet.
• The disease is endemic in Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
• An estimated 165.4 million people are at risk, according to data from the National Centre for Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NCVBDC).
• In the country as a whole, there has been a significant decline in cases over the years.
• In 2014, around 9,200 cases were reported while in 2021 the number fell to 1,276 cases.

What does the treatment include?

• Anti-leishmanial medicines are available for treatment.
• Vector control is also recommended by the WHO, which means reducing or interrupting the transmission of disease by decreasing the number of sandflies in surroundings through insecticide spray, use of insecticide-treated nets, etc.
• The government aimed to eliminate the disease in India by 2015, but that deadline was missed.
• However, the number of cases has been brought down significantly through the National Kala-Azar Elimination Programme.
• Medicines, insecticides and technical support were given by the central government, while state governments provided for costs involved in implementation.
• The program was implemented through State/District Malaria Control Offices and the primary health care system.

-Source: Indian Express

---

Space Docking Experiment

---

Context:

Recently, Hyderabad-based company handed over two 400 kg class satellites to ISRO, which will be part of the Space Docking Experiment planned by the space agency later this year.

Relevance:

GS III: Science and Technology

About Space Docking Experiment (SPADEX)

• One of the ISRO’s significant steps toward developing autonomous docking technology.
• The mission involves two vehicles—‘Chaser’ and the ‘Target’—coming together and connecting in space.
• Docking systems enable two spacecraft to be connected in orbit. This opens up critical operations like assembling a space station, refueling, or the transfer of astronauts and cargo.
• It also will showcase the capability of the integrated spacecraft for stability as well as control after docking, for smooth forthcoming missions
• India’s SPADEX experiment contains a unique objective in itself, and this lies in the aspect of the development of native scalable and low-cost docking technology
• As part of this experiment, two orbiting spacecraft will automatically dock with each other demonstrating accuracy of navigation and control of great relevance to future space missions.
• SPADEX is designed to serve a wide range of spacecraft sizes and mission objectives, including potential collaborations for building space stations or deep space exploration,” (END.
• October 30, 1967: the Soviets successfully executed the historic docking of Kosmos 186 and *Kosmos 188-the first fully automated docking between two unmanned spacecraft.
• ­Established a precedent for extended space exploratory endeavors later, such as staying on orbiting space stations.
• ­Significance: It will be an integral aspect in attaining India’s long-term space exploration objectives, including manned space flight, satellites servicing, and construction of the space station later.

-Source: Business Standards

---

Han River

---

Context:

With an aim to exploit the Musi banks for commercial use, the Telangana government is looking at the Great Hangang (Han River) project in South Korea as a model for attracting private firms to develop riverfronts.

Relevance:

GS I: Geography

About Han River:

• It is one of the most important rivers in South Korea and stands as the fourth longest river in the Korean peninsula.
• Course:
• It originates from the confluence of Namhan (South Han) and Bukhan (North Han) rivers on the eastern side of South Korea.
• The river passes through the country’s capital, Seoul, and further flows into the Yellow Sea.
• The 319 miles of its length are navigable for 200 miles and it has been an invaluable river route since ancient times.
• Several ancient kingdoms of Korea-including Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla-continued to vie for control over the strategic river at various points.
• The river was highly polluted for decades, due to industrial wastes, but appropriate and serious efforts made in the 1980s and 1990s brought back the earlier qualities of the waters.
• There are islands on the Han River: Seonyudo has been developed into an attractive ecological park.
• Banpo Bridge: Known for the Moonlight Rainbow Fountain on the Banpo Bridge in the city of Seoul, over the Han River. Its bridge fountain is the world’s longest.

-Source: Times of India