Content

1. SC Bans Class 8 Textbook: Contempt Powers, Academic Freedom and Constitutional Boundaries
2. Under POCSO, Consent on Trial: Adolescent Autonomy, Statutory Rape and Reform Debate
3. Have AI Products/LLMs Started to Disrupt the Software Services Industry?
4. New GDP Data Set to Capture the Economy More Accurately
5. Afghanistan–Pakistan Border Clashes: Retaliation, Durand Line Dispute and Regional Security
6. Railway Reforms 2026: Rail Tech Policy, AI Integration and e-RCT Digitisation
7. The Complex Social World of Macaques: Behavioural Ecology, Hierarchies and Adaptation
8. Invasive Species, Greening–Browning Patterns and India’s Ecological Imbalance: Insights from AAD 2026

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SC Bans Class 8 Textbook: Contempt Powers, Academic Freedom and Constitutional Boundaries

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Why in News? / Context

• The Supreme Court of India imposed a blanket and complete ban on an NCERT Class 8 Social Science textbook, ordering seizure of all physical and digital copies.
• A three-judge Bench headed by Chief Justice of India Surya Kant initiated suo motu contempt proceedings, describing the content as a “calculated” attempt to malign the judiciary.
• The Court held that selective references to “corruption in judiciary” could instil institutional distrust in “impressionable minds”, affecting long-term public confidence in constitutional governance.

Relevance

GS Paper II – Polity & Constitution

• Articles 129 & 215: Contempt powers of SC & HCs.
• Article 19(1)(a) vs 19(2): Free speech and reasonable restrictions.
• Basic Structure: Judicial independence (Kesavananda Bharati).
• Separation of powers and judicial overreach debate.

GS Paper II – Governance

• Education in Concurrent List (Entry 25).
• NCERT curriculum autonomy vs constitutional limits.
• Institutional trust and constitutional morality.

Mains Practice Question (15 Marks)

• The power to punish for contempt protects judicial authority, yet it must coexist with academic freedom and free speech. Examine the constitutional boundaries of contempt jurisdiction in light of recent developments.

Constitutional and Legal Background

Nature and Position of the Supreme Court

• Established under Article 124, the Supreme Court is the apex judicial authority, guardian of the Constitution, and final interpreter of fundamental rights and federal disputes.
• Under Article 141, law declared by the Supreme Court is binding on all courts; under Article 144, all authorities must act in aid of the Court.
• Judicial independence is part of the Basic Structure doctrine (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973), making protection of institutional credibility constitutionally significant.

Contempt of Court: Constitutional Basis

• Article 129 declares the Supreme Court a Court of Record with power to punish for contempt of itself; High Courts derive similar power under Article 215.
• Contempt power protects administration of justice from obstruction, scandalisation, or interference, preserving authority of courts.
• The power is inherent and not merely statutory; Parliament regulates it through the Contempt of Courts Act, 1971.

Contempt of Courts Act, 1971 – Key Provisions

• Civil Contempt: Wilful disobedience of court orders.
• Criminal Contempt: Publication that scandalises or lowers authority of court, prejudices judicial proceedings, or obstructs administration of justice.
• Section 13 (Amended 2006): Truth as a valid defence if in public interest and bona fide.
• The doctrine of “scandalising the court” remains controversial due to its potential chilling effect on criticism.

Freedom of Speech and Reasonable Restrictions

• Article 19(1)(a) guarantees freedom of speech and expression, including academic discourse and institutional critique.
• Article 19(2) permits reasonable restrictions in interests of contempt of court, public order, defamation, and sovereignty.
• Judicial precedents (e.g., Brahma Prakash Sharma v. State of UP, 1953) distinguish fair criticism from malicious attack undermining institutional integrity.

Education Governance and NCERT

• NCERT, established in 1961, functions as an autonomous body under the Ministry of Education, responsible for curriculum frameworks and textbook preparation.
• Education is in the Concurrent List (Entry 25, List III) after the 42nd Constitutional Amendment, allowing both Union and States to legislate.
• National Curriculum Frameworks periodically guide textbook content; however, editorial autonomy operates within constitutional limitations.

Doctrinal and Institutional Dimensions

Separation of Powers

• Judiciary safeguards constitutional supremacy; executive oversees education policy; legislature frames statutory framework.
• Judicial intervention in curriculum reflects assertion of institutional protection but raises concerns regarding potential overreach into academic domains.

Judicial Accountability vs Judicial Independence

• Democratic theory permits scrutiny of institutions; however, institutional erosion through selective portrayal may weaken rule of law foundations.
• The judiciary has historically tolerated reasoned criticism but penalised malicious attempts undermining authority (Arundhati Roy Contempt Case, 2002).

Democratic and Governance Implications

• Public trust in judiciary is crucial for enforcement of contracts, fundamental rights, and constitutional remedies under Article 32.
• A narrative of systemic judicial corruption, if uncontextualised, may weaken institutional legitimacy among youth.
• Simultaneously, excessive restriction of academic discourse risks narrowing space for informed civic education and constitutional literacy.

Challenges

• Definitional Ambiguity: Scope of “scandalising the court” under criminal contempt remains broad, potentially discouraging academic examination of judicial accountability mechanisms.
• Editorial Oversight Gaps: Absence of structured constitutional vetting in NCERT textbook review processes exposes curriculum to ideological or institutional controversy.
• Digital Enforcement Practicality: Order to seize all digital copies faces technological challenges due to replication, downloads, and archival persistence.
• Balancing Article 19(1)(a) and 19(2): Determining proportionality of blanket ban requires strict scrutiny under evolving free speech jurisprudence.
• Institutional Sensitivity vs Transparency: Protecting judicial dignity must not suppress discussion of reforms like judicial appointments, impeachment provisions under Article 124(4), or anti-corruption safeguards.

Way Forward

• Establish Constitutional Review Panel within NCERT including retired judges and constitutional scholars for vetting sensitive institutional topics.
• Codify Clear Pedagogical Standards distinguishing systemic institutional critique from individual allegations, ensuring balanced civic education.
• Refine Contempt Jurisprudence through larger Bench clarification on limits of “scandalising the court”, aligning with proportionality doctrine.
• Enhance Judicial Transparency by strengthening disclosure norms, performance data publication, and grievance redressal mechanisms to reduce mistrust.
• Promote Constitutional Literacy Programs integrating balanced modules on separation of powers, checks and balances, and accountability frameworks.

Prelims Pointers

• Article 129 & 215: Contempt powers of Supreme Court and High Courts.
• Contempt of Courts Act, 1971: Defines civil and criminal contempt.
• Entry 25, Concurrent List: Education under joint legislative competence.
• Article 19(2): Reasonable restrictions including contempt of court.

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Under POCSO, Consent on Trial: Adolescent Autonomy, Statutory Rape and Reform Debate

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Why in News? / Context

• In January 2026, the Supreme Court of India urged the Union Government to consider introducing a “Romeo and Juliet” clause in the POCSO Act, 2012, exempting consensual close-in-age adolescent relationships.
• Courts increasingly confront cases where POCSO is invoked by families opposing inter-caste or inter-faith relationships, transforming consensual adolescent intimacy into statutory rape prosecutions.
• A 2022 Enfold study analysing 7,064 POCSO judgments (2016–2020) found 24.3% cases involved romantic relationships, with 80.2% complaints filed by parents, revealing systemic misuse concerns.

Relevance

GS Paper II – Governance & Social Justice

• POCSO Act, 2012 (strict liability; age <18).
• Section 19 mandatory reporting.
• Intersection with MTP Act, 2021.

GS Paper II – Polity

• Article 21: Privacy & sexual autonomy (Puttaswamy, Navtej).
• Articles 14 & 15: Indirect discrimination concerns.

Mains Practice Question (15 Marks)

• The POCSO Act’s strict age-of-consent framework aims to protect minors but has triggered concerns regarding adolescent autonomy and misuse. Critically examine the need for a “close-in-age” exception in India.

Legal Background

Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012

• Enacted to provide a comprehensive, gender-neutral framework addressing child sexual abuse, pornography, and aggravated penetrative assault, ensuring child-friendly procedures and special courts.
• Defines a “child” as any person below 18 years, criminalising all sexual acts involving minors irrespective of consent, thereby creating strict liability statutory rape framework.
• Provides mandatory minimum sentence of seven years, extendable to life imprisonment for penetrative sexual assault, reflecting zero-tolerance legislative intent.

Age of Consent in India

• For over 70 years, age of consent under IPC was 16 years; raised to 18 years in 2012 with POCSO enactment.
• The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013, post-Nirbhaya reforms, retained 18 years as uniform age of consent, consolidating statutory rape doctrine.
• Current framework treats consensual adolescent intimacy identically to exploitative abuse, creating doctrinal tension between protection and autonomy.

Mandatory Reporting under Section 19 POCSO

• Section 19 mandates any person or institution with knowledge of a POCSO offence to report to police; failure punishable with up to six months’ imprisonment, one year for institutional heads.
• Doctors and counsellors legally obligated to report minor sexual activity, even if consensual, creating ethical conflict between confidentiality and legal compliance.
• In September 2022, Supreme Court relaxed disclosure norms, allowing doctors to protect minor’s identity if confidentiality requested, but FIR registration remains mandatory.

Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, 1971 (Amended 2021)

• Permits termination up to 24 weeks in specified categories, including minors; however, reporting obligations under POCSO complicate confidential reproductive healthcare access.
• Conflict between reproductive rights jurisprudence (Article 21 – dignity and privacy) and mandatory criminal reporting regime creates systemic tension.

Constitutional Dimensions

Right to Privacy and Sexual Autonomy

• In Puttaswamy (2017), Supreme Court recognised privacy as fundamental right under Article 21, encompassing decisional autonomy in intimate matters.
• Navtej Johar (2018) affirmed sexual autonomy and dignity as constitutional values; yet minors remain excluded from consensual autonomy under statutory rape framework.

Equality and Non-Discrimination

• Blanket criminalisation disproportionately affects inter-caste and inter-faith couples, implicating Articles 14 and 15 concerns of indirect discrimination.
• Evidence suggests male adolescents often prosecuted, while female minors categorised as victims, reinforcing gender stereotypes.

Empirical Trends and Social Impact

Romantic Relationship Cases

• Enfold’s 7,064-judgment analysis revealed 24.3% cases were romantic, with 80.2% parental complaints, indicating weaponisation to enforce social conformity.
• High acquittal rates reflect breakdown of prosecution when complainants retract statements, suggesting misuse rather than genuine abuse cases.

Rural and Social Context

• POCSO often invoked in inter-caste relationships, reinforcing entrenched social hierarchies and honour-based familial resistance.
• Adolescents from marginalised backgrounds face greater vulnerability due to limited legal literacy and access to legal representation.

Challenges

• Over-Criminalisation: Age of consent at 18 years criminalises consensual 16–17-year-old relationships, ignoring developmental psychology and normative adolescent behaviour.
• Mandatory Reporting Conflict: Section 19 reporting leads to FIR registration even in consensual cases, undermining confidentiality in reproductive healthcare.
• High Romantic Case Share (24.3%) burdens Special Courts, diverting resources from genuine abuse prosecution.
• Socio-Cultural Weaponisation: 80.2% parental complaints reflect caste and religious opposition rather than child protection imperatives.
• Ambiguity in Close-in-Age Proposal: Supreme Court’s “Romeo and Juliet” suggestion lacks definitional clarity, risking inconsistent interpretation and litigation overload.

Way Forward

• Introduce Statutory Close-in-Age Exception: Exempt consensual relationships where age difference ≤3–5 years and both parties above 16, modelled on comparative jurisdictions.
• Amend Section 19 Reporting Norms: Create conditional reporting exemption for consensual adolescent cases certified by Child Welfare Committees.
• Judicial Screening Mechanism: Mandate preliminary inquiry by Special Courts to distinguish exploitative abuse from consensual relationships before framing charges.
• Strengthen Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE) aligned with National Education Policy to equip adolescents with consent literacy and risk awareness.
• Data Transparency Dashboard: Annual publication of POCSO case typology (romantic vs exploitative) to guide evidence-based legislative reform.

Prelims Pointers

• POCSO Act, 2012: Child defined as below 18 years; mandatory reporting under Section 19.
• Age of consent raised to 18 in 2012, retained in Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013.
• MTP Act 1971 (Amended 2021): Termination permitted up to 24 weeks in specified cases.

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Have AI products/LLMs started to disrupt the software services industry?

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Why in News?

• AI services revenues projected at $10–12 billion in FY26, indicating rapid enterprise adoption.
• Simultaneous layoffs, restructuring, and automation, especially in entry-level IT and BPO roles.
• Debate: Disruption vs Transformation in India’s software services model.

Relevance

GS Paper III – Economy

• IT–BPM sector (~$245–250 bn; 5.4+ million jobs).
• Labour arbitrage → intelligence arbitrage shift.
• Employment elasticity decline.

GS Paper III – Science & Technology

• AI integration in SDLC and BPO automation.
• Sovereign LLM vs AI services strategy.

Mains Practice Question (15 Marks)

AI-led automation is transforming India’s software services industry from a labour-arbitrage to an intelligence-arbitrage model. Analyse its implications for employment, regulation, and long-term competitiveness.

Static Background

Structure of India’s IT–BPM Sector

• India’s IT–BPM industry valued at ~$245–250 billion (FY23–24, NASSCOM estimates).
• Employs 5.4+ million people directly, with 60%+ workforce under 30 years.
• Built historically on labour arbitrage model: time-and-material billing, pyramid workforce structure.

Two Broad Segments

• IT Services: Application development, maintenance, cloud, enterprise integration.
• BPM/BPO/KPO: Repetitive, process-driven, voice/non-voice services.

Nature of AI Intervention

1. From Labour Arbitrage to Intelligence Arbitrage

• Traditional model: growth = increase in headcount.
• AI-enabled model: growth without proportional hiring → higher revenue per employee.
• Shift from pyramid model → diamond structure → outcome-based squads.

2. Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC) Transformation

• AI tools generate code, test cases, documentation, user stories.
• Reduction in build-time: squads of 8–10 members → 3–5 members in some use-cases.
• Emergence of context engineering and domain-specialised roles.
• Regulated sectors (e.g., banking) require auditability, traceability, and compliance layers over AI outputs.

3. BPO/KPO Vulnerability

• Repetitive, rule-based tasks susceptible to agentic AI automation.
• Call centres employing 4,000–5,000 staff may need 10–15 supervisory validators for automated workflows.
• Entry-level voice/non-voice roles most exposed.

Constitutional / Legal Dimensions

Labour Protection

• Article 21 – Right to livelihood (Olga Tellis case).
• India lacks structured unemployment insurance for formal IT workforce.
• Industrial Disputes Act protections limited for white-collar IT employees (often outside “workman” definition).

Algorithmic Governance

• Increasing use of AI in performance tracking and workforce allocation.
• Raises concerns under:
  • Right to Privacy (Puttaswamy, 2017)
  • Emerging debates on AI transparency and accountability under Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023.

Economic Dimensions

1. Productivity vs Employment

• AI increases output per engineer, but reduces marginal demand for entry-level hiring.
• India’s demographic dividend: 65% population below 35 years – job elasticity critical.

2. Pricing Model Shift

• Movement from time-and-material billing → squad-based → outcome-based pricing.
• Clients prioritise predictability, quality, and upfront cost clarity.
• Enhances margins but reduces labour intensity.

3. Global Value Chain Position

• Foundational LLMs largely built in U.S. and China, with massive compute and capital backing.
• India strong in enterprise integration, systems engineering, scaling, execution discipline.
• Strategic choice: Sovereign LLM development vs AI services dominance.

Social / Ethical Dimensions

1. Just Transition Concerns

• Sudden layoffs affect financial planning, education, mental health stability.
• No structured wage-loss insurance unlike OECD nations.

2. Skilling Gaps

• Skill India largely non-credit, non-certifiable for high-end AI competencies.
• Gap between prompt engineering exposure and production-grade domain AI capability.

3. Algorithmic Decision-Making

• Performance metrics increasingly AI-driven → transparency deficits.
• Risk of opaque retrenchment decisions labelled as “AI restructuring”.

Environmental Dimension

AI and Data Centres

• AI expansion → rapid data centre growth.
• Data centres:
  • High electricity consumption
  • Significant water usage for cooling
  • Limited direct employment multiplier compared to traditional IT parks.
• Raises sustainability concerns aligned with India’s Net Zero 2070 commitment.

Challenges 

• Entry-Level Displacement Risk: BPO/KPO automation can shrink workforce from thousands to double-digit supervisory teams.
• Employment Elasticity Decline: Revenue growth decoupled from headcount growth under intelligence arbitrage model.
• Insufficient Domestic Foundational AI Investment: Compared to U.S./China scale capital and compute infrastructure.
• Lack of Social Security Net: No structured unemployment benefits for high-skill white-collar layoffs.
• Regulatory Vacuum on Algorithmic Management: No explicit AI workplace transparency law; DPDP Act focuses on data, not employment algorithms.

Way Forward 

• National AI Workforce Transition Framework: Mandate large tech firms to publish annual AI-impact workforce disclosures.
• Portable Skill Credit System: Convert Skill India into credit-based, industry-validated certification platform aligned with NCrF (National Credit Framework).
• Unemployment Insurance for Formal Sector: Expand ESIC or create contributory wage-loss insurance for IT professionals for 6–9 months.
• Green AI Standards: Mandate energy efficiency norms for data centres under Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE).
• Strategic AI Dual Model:
  • Invest in sovereign LLMs via IndiaAI Mission.
  • Simultaneously strengthen India’s global dominance in AI services integration and enterprise scaling.

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New GDP data set to capture economy more accurately

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Why in News?

• The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) is releasing a new series of national accounts, revising the base year from 2011–12 to 2022–23.
• The revision incorporates methodological upgrades and new data sources, including expanded use of GST data, ASUSE, and financial sector datasets.
• Objective: Improve accuracy of GDP and Gross Value Added (GVA) estimates, reduce extrapolation bias, and better capture structural shifts in the economy.

Relevance

GS Paper III – Economy

• GDP vs GVA concepts.
• Base year revision (2011–12 → 2022–23).
• GST integration in national accounts.
• Impact on fiscal deficit and debt ratios.

GS Paper II – Governance

• Role of MoSPI & NSO.
• Statistical credibility and transparency.

Mains Practice Question (15 Marks)

• Base year revisions are essential for accurate national income estimation but often generate controversy. Discuss the significance and challenges of India’s shift to the 2022–23 GDP base year.

National Income Accounting in India

Constitutional and Institutional Framework

• National income statistics compiled under Collection of Statistics Act, 2008.
• MoSPI through the National Statistical Office (NSO) prepares GDP, GVA, and related macroeconomic aggregates.
• Base year revision undertaken periodically to reflect structural transformation; previous base year: 2011–12 (revised in 2015).

GDP and GVA Concepts

• GDP (Gross Domestic Product): Market value of final goods and services produced within domestic territory.
• GVA (Gross Value Added): Output minus intermediate consumption; sectoral performance measured primarily through GVA.
• GDP at market prices = GVA + product taxes – subsidies.

Why Base Year Revision Matters ?

• Ensures updated price structure, production patterns, consumption weights.
• Improves sectoral comparability and inter-temporal analysis.
• Aligns with UN System of National Accounts (SNA 2008) standards.

Key Methodological Changes in New Series

1. Base Year Shift: 2011–12 → 2022–23

• Reflects post-pandemic structural changes, digitalisation, formalisation trends, and GST-led tax transparency.
• Reduces distortions caused by outdated price weights and sector composition.

2. Enhanced Use of GST Data

• GST data now used to better estimate value added of private corporations, replacing partial extrapolations.
• Helps capture activity-wise revenue shares, reducing sectoral misallocation in GVA estimation.
• Enables improved regional output measurement through transaction-level tax data.

3. Improved Corporate Sector Estimation

• Greater reliance on Annual Survey of Unincorporated Sector Enterprises (ASUSE) and administrative datasets.
• Replacement of proxy-based estimates for Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) with actual financial filings.
• Improves capture of private final consumption expenditure and service-sector output.

4. Household Sector Improvements

• Household sector output earlier estimated through extrapolation; new series uses enhanced Household Consumer Expenditure Surveys.
• Direct estimation reduces imputation bias in informal and self-employment sectors.

5. Financial Sector Refinement

• Utilisation of Statistical Tables Relating to Banks in India (STRBI) from RBI.
• Incorporates both public and private bank data comprehensively.
• Better measurement of financial intermediation services indirectly measured (FISIM).

Economic Significance

1. Formalisation Capture

• GST integration reflects impact of post-2017 tax reform on formalisation and compliance expansion.
• Enhances measurement of digital transactions and enterprise-level reporting.

2. Policy Precision

• More accurate GVA data improves fiscal deficit calculations, debt-to-GDP ratios, and sectoral productivity analysis.
• Affects FRBM compliance metrics and international investor perception.

3. Sectoral Rebalancing

• Improved housing services measurement includes value of government-provided housing benefits.
• Strengthens public sector output accounting.

Challenges

• Comparability Break: Base year revision complicates inter-temporal comparisons with 2011–12 series.
• Data Quality Dependence: Heavy reliance on GST assumes high compliance; informal sector leakages may persist.
• Extrapolation Risks Reduced but Not Eliminated: Household sector and small enterprises still partly estimated indirectly.
• Revision Volatility: Frequent back-series adjustments may create policy uncertainty and credibility debates.
• State-Level Disparities: Regional GST reporting variations may distort sub-national GDP estimates.

Way Forward

• Transparent Back-Series Publication: Release consistent recalculated historical GDP to preserve analytical continuity.
• Strengthen Informal Sector Surveys: Expand ASUSE frequency and coverage to capture gig and platform economy growth.
• Integrate Digital Payment Data: Use UPI and digital transaction datasets for improved services-sector estimation.
• Independent Statistical Audit Mechanism: Enhance credibility through peer review by National Statistical Commission.
• Capacity Building at State Level: Harmonise data reporting standards to improve regional GSDP accuracy.

Prelims Pointers

• Base year revised to 2022–23 from 2011–12.
• GDP = GVA + taxes – subsidies.
• ASUSE replaces earlier proxy-based unincorporated sector estimation.
• GST data now integrated into corporate GVA estimation.

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Afghanistan–Pakistan Border Clashes: Retaliation, Durand Line Dispute and Regional Security

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Why in News?

• The Taliban administration in Afghanistan launched retaliatory attacks on Pakistani border posts following alleged Pakistani airstrikes.
• Clashes occurred along the 2,600 km Durand Line, escalating tensions after cross-border strikes targeting alleged militant camps.
• Both sides accused each other of “unprovoked fire,” indicating deterioration in bilateral security relations post-2021 Taliban takeover.

Relevance

GS Paper II – International Relations

• Durand Line dispute (1893).
• Article 51 (self-defence) under UN Charter.
• Taliban governance post-2021.

GS Paper III – Security

• TTP factor and cross-border militancy.
• Regional instability implications for India.

Mains Practice Question (15 Marks)

• Recurring clashes along the Durand Line reflect unresolved historical disputes and evolving security threats. Analyse the legal and geopolitical dimensions of Afghanistan–Pakistan border tensions.

Static Background

1. The Durand Line Dispute

• The Durand Line (1893) was drawn between British India and Afghanistan by Sir Mortimer Durand.
• Length: ~2,640 km, dividing Pashtun tribal areas.
• Pakistan recognises it as international border; Afghanistan has historically refused formal recognition.
• Dispute fuels cross-border insurgency and mistrust.

2. Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) Factor

• TTP is a Pakistan-based militant group aiming to overthrow the Pakistani state.
• Islamabad accuses Kabul of providing safe havens to TTP fighters post-2021.
• Taliban deny formal support but have struggled to restrain transnational militancy.

3. Taliban Government (Post-2021)

• Taliban regained control of Afghanistan in August 2021 after U.S. withdrawal.
• No formal international recognition by most countries.
• Afghanistan faces economic crisis, humanitarian dependency, and security fragmentation.

Geopolitical Context

1. Pakistan’s Security Calculus

• Pakistan conducted alleged airstrikes in Afghan territory targeting militant camps.
• Islamabad frames action as safeguarding territorial integrity and internal security.
• Escalation reflects breakdown of earlier Pakistan–Taliban tactical alignment.

2. Afghanistan’s Strategic Signalling

• Taliban’s retaliatory strikes signal assertion of sovereignty.
• Domestic legitimacy imperative: projecting strength against perceived external aggression.
• Risk of localised clashes escalating into broader confrontation.

International Law Perspective

Sovereignty and Non-Intervention

• Under UN Charter Article 2(4), states must refrain from use of force against territorial integrity of another state.
• Cross-border strikes justified by Pakistan under self-defence doctrine (Article 51) against non-state actors.
• Legal controversy: whether inability/unwillingness doctrine applies.

Counter-Terrorism Law

• States obligated to prevent territory being used for terrorist activities (UNSC Resolution 1373).
• Failure to control TTP presence complicates Taliban’s international legitimacy claims.

Regional Security Implications

1. Escalation Risk

• Armed exchanges along mountainous terrain increase risk of miscalculation.
• Historical precedent: border clashes in October 2023 and 2024 ceasefire breakdowns.

2. Refugee and Humanitarian Impact

• Afghanistan already hosts severe humanitarian crisis; border tensions disrupt trade and aid corridors.
• Pakistan hosts millions of Afghan refugees; tensions may worsen deportation policies.

3. India’s Strategic Stakes

• India maintains limited engagement with Taliban regime while monitoring security implications.
• Instability could affect connectivity projects in Central Asia and regional counter-terror strategy.

Economic and Connectivity Angle

• Pakistan–Afghanistan trade critical for landlocked Afghan economy.
• Border closures disrupt transit routes linked to Central Asia–South Asia connectivity frameworks.
• Potential spillover into CPEC security dynamics.

Challenges 

• Unresolved Border Legitimacy: Durand Line remains contested, preventing stable demarcation and border management.
• Non-State Actor Sanctuaries: TTP presence complicates sovereignty claims and fuels retaliatory doctrine justification.
• Weak Institutional Control in Afghanistan: Taliban governance lacks unified control over all armed factions.
• Escalatory Signalling: Airstrikes and retaliatory artillery increase probability of accidental escalation.
• Humanitarian Spillover: Trade disruptions and refugee tensions exacerbate fragile Afghan economy.

Way Forward

• Revive Border Coordination Mechanism: Institutionalise joint verification and ceasefire monitoring cells.
• Counter-Terror Cooperation Framework: Structured intelligence-sharing mechanism targeting TTP without violating sovereignty.
• Durand Line Confidence-Building Measures: Local ceasefire committees involving tribal elders to reduce flashpoints.
• Regional Mediation Support: Engage SCO or OIC platforms to facilitate dialogue.
• Humanitarian Safeguards: Ensure border trade and aid corridors insulated from military escalation.

Prelims Notes

• Durand Line (1893) divides Pakistan and Afghanistan (~2,640 km).
• UN Charter Article 51 permits self-defence against armed attack.
• TTP distinct from Afghan Taliban; operates primarily against Pakistan.
• Afghanistan not formally recognised by most UN member states post-2021.

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Railway Reforms 2026: Rail Tech Policy, AI Integration and e-RCT Digitisation

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Why in News?

• The Ministry of Railways launched a Rail Tech Policy and the Rail Tech Portal to enable smoother start-up access and structured funding support.
• Announced reforms under the flagship “52 Reforms in 52 Weeks” initiative aim to accelerate innovation adoption and scale-up.
• The Railway Claims Tribunal (RCT) is being digitised through e-RCT, enabling electronic filing and faster disposal of accident compensation claims.

Relevance

GS Paper III – Infrastructure & S&T

• AI integration in rail safety (EIDS, fire detection).
• Innovation funding model (50% support).

GS Paper II – Governance

• Railway Claims Tribunal Act, 1987.
• Digitisation and access to justice (Article 21, 39A).

Mains Practice Question (15 Marks)

• Digital transformation and AI integration in Indian Railways promise efficiency gains but raise governance challenges. Critically examine the reform trajectory under the Rail Tech Policy.

Static Background

Indian Railways: Institutional Context

• Indian Railways is one of the world’s largest rail networks, spanning ~68,000 km route length, carrying over 8 billion passengers annually (pre-pandemic levels).
• Operates under the Ministry of Railways, with safety governed by statutory and regulatory frameworks including the Railways Act, 1989.
• Innovation adoption historically slow due to procurement rigidity and bureaucratic compliance layers.

Railway Claims Tribunal (RCT)

• Established under the Railway Claims Tribunal Act, 1987.
• Adjudicates compensation claims for death, injury, and loss of goods in railway accidents.
• Previously required physical filing and in-person hearings, causing delays and access barriers.

Key Reform Components

1. Rail Tech Policy and Portal

• Designed to simplify start-up engagement and remove entry barriers for technology deployment in Railways.
• Enables systematic evaluation, pilot testing, and scaling of innovative solutions.
• Government to fund 50% of start-up solution development cost, reducing financial risk.
• Scale-up grant enhanced by over three times, with prototype funding cap doubled.

2. AI and Technology Integration Areas

Railways exploring:

• AI-based Elephant Intrusion Detection System (EIDS) to prevent wildlife collisions.
• AI-based fire detection in coaches for passenger safety.
• Drone-based broken rail detection systems improving preventive maintenance.
• Rail-stress monitoring systems for structural resilience.
• Sensor-based load calculation devices on parcel vans.
• AI-based coach cleaning monitoring systems.
• Obstruction detection in foggy environments enhancing safety in northern corridors.
• Solar panels on coaches to improve energy efficiency.
• AI-based pension and dispute resolution systems for administrative efficiency.

3. e-Railway Claims Tribunal (e-RCT)

• Complete digitisation of claim filing, documentation, and case tracking.
• Allows litigants to file claims from any location, reducing travel costs and procedural friction.
• Accelerates adjudication process in compensation cases involving deaths and injuries.

Governance and Administrative Dimensions

Ease of Doing Innovation

• Rail Tech Policy aligns with Startup India (2016) and Digital India initiatives.
• Incorporates best practices from defence and telecom innovation procurement frameworks.
• Shift from closed procurement to open innovation ecosystem model.

Access to Justice

• e-RCT enhances compliance with Article 21 (Right to Life) by enabling faster compensation delivery.
• Supports Article 39A (Equal Justice and Free Legal Aid) by lowering procedural barriers.

Economic and Industrial Impact

• Encourages domestic innovation ecosystem in rail safety and smart mobility.
• Strengthens Make in India by localising rail-tech solutions.
• Enhances operational efficiency, potentially lowering accident-related economic losses.
• Promotes green transition via solar and energy optimisation systems.

Environmental and Sustainability Dimension

• AI-enabled elephant detection reduces human-wildlife conflict in forest corridors.
• Solar integration aligns with India’s Net Zero 2070 commitment.
• Predictive maintenance reduces derailments and associated environmental damage.

Challenges

• Procurement Integration Risk: Pilot-to-scale transition often delayed due to legacy tendering rules.
• Data Security and AI Governance: Increased digitisation raises cybersecurity vulnerabilities.
• Funding Adequacy: 50% cost-sharing may still be insufficient for capital-intensive deep-tech solutions.
• Digital Divide in e-RCT: Rural litigants may face barriers in digital filing despite reform intent.
• Inter-Departmental Coordination: Scaling AI systems requires synchronisation across zonal railways.

Way Forward

• Single Innovation Clearance Cell within Railways to fast-track pilot approvals within fixed timelines.
• Dedicated Rail Innovation Fund with predictable multi-year budget allocations.
• Cybersecurity Protocol Framework aligned with CERT-In guidelines for AI-enabled infrastructure.
• Hybrid Filing Model for e-RCT combining digital and assisted facilitation centres.
• Performance-Based Innovation Contracts linking payments to safety and efficiency metrics.

Prelims Notes

• Railway Claims Tribunal Act, 1987 established RCT.
• Rail Tech Policy provides 50% funding support for start-up solutions.
• e-RCT allows complete digital filing and tracking of claims.
• Elephant Intrusion Detection System (EIDS) uses AI for wildlife protection.

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The Complex Social World of Macaques: Behavioural Ecology, Hierarchies and Adaptation

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Why in News?

• A report on a Japanese macaque named “Punch”, isolated early and reintroduced later, highlights how early maternal deprivation affects primate behaviour and social integration.
• Observations raise broader questions on social hierarchies, dominance systems, stress, and adaptation in macaque societies.
• The case provides insights relevant to wildlife management, zoo ethics, and primate behavioural research.

Relevance

GS Paper III – Environment & Biodiversity

• Behavioural ecology and conservation.
• Human–wildlife conflict (urban macaques).
• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.

GS Paper I – Society (Comparative Insight)

• Hierarchies, social learning, group behaviour (sociological parallels).

Mains Practice Question (15 Marks)

• Behavioural ecology insights are essential for effective wildlife conservation. Discuss with reference to primate social structures and habitat fragmentation.

Macaques in India and Asia

Taxonomy and Distribution

• Macaques belong to genus Macaca, family Cercopithecidae.
• India hosts species such as:
  • Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta)
  • Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata)
  • Assam macaque (Macaca assamensis)
  • Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) (endangered, Western Ghats).
• Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) native to Japan; known as “snow monkey”.

Conservation Status

• Lion-tailed macaque: Endangered (IUCN).
• Rhesus macaque: Least Concern, but involved in urban human-wildlife conflict.
• Protected under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (India) — different schedules for species.

Social Structure of Macaques

1. Matrilineal Hierarchy

• Japanese macaques exhibit female philopatry (females remain in natal group).
• Rank of daughters often correlates with mother’s dominance status.
• Hierarchy maintained through grooming, alliances, and ritualised aggression.

2. Dominance and Aggression

• Higher-ranked individuals display aggression toward lower-ranked members.
• Aggression may serve:
  • Reinforcement of rank order
  • Resource competition (food, mates)
  • Social discipline mechanism
• Not random violence but structured behavioural pattern.

3. Role of Maternal Bonding

• Classic studies by Harry Harlow (1950s) showed maternal deprivation in rhesus macaques leads to:
  • Social withdrawal
  • Stress behaviours
  • Impaired peer interaction
• Early-life trauma affects integration into hierarchical systems.

Behavioural Ecology Dimensions

1. Social Learning

• Macaques exhibit cultural transmission (e.g., potato-washing behaviour in Japanese macaques).
• Juveniles learn grooming, foraging, and rank navigation through maternal and peer modelling.

2. Group Cohesion and Survival

• Primates rely on social groups for:
  • Predator avoidance
  • Resource defence
  • Emotional regulation
• Unlike herd animals, primates operate under complex social rules and coalition-building.

Psychological and Evolutionary Insights

• Early stress influences cortisol levels and long-term behavioural responses.
• Hierarchical societies reduce constant conflict by stabilising rank expectations.
• Integration failure may increase intra-group competition and stress dynamics.

Urban and Human Interface

• Rhesus macaques in Indian cities show behavioural adaptation to anthropogenic food sources.
• Human provisioning alters dominance patterns and increases conflict.
• Wildlife management must account for social structure, not just population control.

Environmental and Conservation Context

• Habitat fragmentation disrupts troop cohesion and dispersal routes.
• Lion-tailed macaques face isolation due to Western Ghats deforestation.
• Climate change alters food availability, impacting social competition intensity.

Challenges

• Maternal Separation Stress: Early deprivation affects long-term social stability and integration success.
• Habitat Fragmentation: Breaks matrilineal continuity and dispersal corridors.
• Urban Conflict: Food provisioning skews natural hierarchy and increases aggression.
• Captive Reintroduction Risks: Social acceptance of isolated individuals uncertain in structured hierarchies.
• Tourism Pressure: Behavioural alteration in snow monkeys and temple macaques due to human interaction.

Way Forward

• Behaviour-Informed Wildlife Management: Integrate primate social ecology into relocation and rehabilitation policies.
• Habitat Corridor Protection: Strengthen Western Ghats connectivity for lion-tailed macaques.
• Regulate Wildlife Tourism: Limit feeding and close-contact photography.
• Urban Conflict Mitigation Plans: Secure waste management and awareness campaigns.
• Longitudinal Behavioural Monitoring: Support primate research institutions to track stress and hierarchy changes.

Prelims Notes

• Harry Harlow experiments (1950s): Maternal deprivation in rhesus macaques.
• Lion-tailed macaque endemic to Western Ghats.
• Macaques exhibit female philopatry and matrilineal dominance hierarchies.
• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 governs primate protection in India.

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Invasive Species, Greening–Browning Patterns and India’s Ecological Imbalance: Insights from AAD 2026

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Why in News?

• At the Anil Agarwal Dialogue (AAD) 2026, Prof. Jagdish Krishnaswamy highlighted that invasive alien species and hydrological shifts are reshaping India’s ecological balance.
• Presentation of the Greening and Browning Atlas of India (1982–2022; 2000–2022) reveals uneven vegetation trends not fully captured by conventional climate models.
• Findings connect canal irrigation, rainfall shifts in northwest India, Western Ghats forest dynamics, and water imbalances to broader Anthropocene transformations.

Relevance

GS Paper III – Environment

• Invasive Alien Species (CBD).
• NDVI-based greening vs ecological health.
• Blue water vs green water.
• Western Ghats hydrological feedback loops.

GS Paper III – Climate Change

• Land-use feedbacks in Anthropocene.
• Irrigation-induced micro-climate shifts (Thar Desert).

Mains Practice Question (15 Marks)

• Satellite-based “greening” trends do not necessarily reflect ecological restoration. Examine how invasive species and hydrological shifts are reshaping India’s ecological balance.

Static Background

1. Invasive Alien Species (IAS)

• Defined under Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) as non-native species whose introduction threatens ecosystems, habitats, or species.
• Examples in India:
  • Lantana camara (Western Ghats)
  • Prosopis juliflora (Thar Desert)
  • Parthenium hysterophorus
• Impacts include:
  • Altered soil biogeochemistry
  • Reduced native biodiversity
  • Changed fire regimes and hydrological cycles

2. Greening and Browning Concepts

• Greening: Increase in vegetation density (NDVI-based satellite indicators).
• Drivers: afforestation, irrigation expansion, shrub encroachment, invasive species spread.
• Browning: Vegetation decline due to drought, land-use change, mining, urbanisation, or climate stress.
• Important: Greening does not always imply ecological health; it may signal invasive proliferation.

3. Western Ghats Ecological Significance

• Recognised as UNESCO World Heritage Site and biodiversity hotspot.
• Major source of peninsular rivers: Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri.
• Forests regulate rainfall through evapotranspiration, influencing eastern coastal rainfall regimes.
• Degradation affects regional monsoon dynamics and downstream water security.

4. Thar Desert and Indira Gandhi Canal

• Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan Canal Project) diverts Sutlej–Beas waters to arid northwest India.
• Canal irrigation increases soil moisture and local evapotranspiration.
• Evidence suggests increasing rainfall in parts of Rajasthan, altering Thar’s ecological character.
• Risk: salinisation, waterlogging, and invasive shrub expansion (e.g., Prosopis).

Hydrological Dimensions

1. Blue Water vs Green Water

• Blue Water: Surface and groundwater used for drinking, irrigation, industry.
• Green Water: Soil moisture from rainfall used by vegetation via evapotranspiration.
• Agriculture consumes majority of India’s blue water (~80–85%).
• Climate variability makes green water management crucial for resilience.

2. Wetting and Drying Atlas

• Surface Water Trends dataset maps changes in lakes, ponds, wetlands.
• Reveals paradox: simultaneous intensifying droughts and extreme rainfall events.
• Indicates imbalance rather than uniform scarcity.

Ecological and Biogeochemical Impacts

• Invasive species alter carbon sequestration patterns and soil nutrient cycles.
• Changes in vegetation affect albedo, evapotranspiration, and atmospheric moisture recycling.
• Delta stability depends on sediment transport; rivers reaching sea are ecologically vital.

Anthropocene Context

• Anthropocene marked by dominant human alteration of land, water, and climate systems.
• India’s ecological shifts reflect irrigation expansion, urbanisation, mining, and altered rainfall regimes.
• Climate models often underrepresent land-use feedbacks and invasive-driven vegetation changes.

Environmental Governance Framework

• Biological Diversity Act, 2002 governs biodiversity conservation.
• India party to CBD and supports Global Biodiversity Framework targets.
• National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) includes missions on sustainable agriculture and water.

Challenges

• Invasive-Driven False Greening: Satellite greening may mask biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation.
• Hydrological Imbalance: Canal-induced moisture shifts may distort local climate and desert ecology.
• Western Ghats Degradation: Structural forest change affects rainfall redistribution to eastern India.
• Delta Vulnerability: Reduced sediment flow increases coastal erosion and climate risk.
• Policy Fragmentation: Water, land, and biodiversity policies often operate in silos, ignoring systemic feedback loops.

Way Forward 

• National Invasive Species Strategy with real-time satellite monitoring integrated into forest management.
• Green Water Budgeting at district level to complement blue water accounting.
• Landscape-Level Planning in Western Ghats to preserve evapotranspiration-linked rainfall systems.
• Sediment-Sensitive River Management to protect deltas and coastal resilience.
• Integrated Eco-Hydrological Modelling combining land-use, climate, and biodiversity datasets for policy decisions.

Prelims Notes

• Evapotranspiration influences regional rainfall redistribution.
• Prosopis juliflora invasive in Thar Desert.
• Western Ghats recognised as UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Blue water vs green water distinction central to hydrological management.