Content

1. India’s Metro Network and Ridership Quadrupled in the Last Decade
2. Centre Approves Terms of 8th Central Pay Commission
3. Moving Villagers from Tiger Reserves Must Be Voluntary
4. Setting Up an Early Warning System for the Himalayas Poses Unique Challenges
5. Delhi and Cloud Seeding
6. Chhath Puja: What Makes This Festival So Dear to the Purvanchali Heart

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India’s metro network and ridership quadrupled in the last decade

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 Why in News ?

• As of 2025, India’s metro rail network crossed 1,000 km, expanding from just 248 km in 2014, making India the world’s 3rd largest metro system (after China and the U.S.) — as per the Press Information Bureau (PIB).
• Daily ridership has surged 4x in a decade, indicating rapid urban transit transformation and growing public adoption.

Relevance:

• GS-3 (Infrastructure & Economy): Urban transport development, public infrastructure growth, and economic multiplier impacts.
• GS-2 (Governance & Policy): Urban mobility policies — Metro Rail Policy (2017), Smart Cities Mission, AMRUT 2.0, and PM Gati Shakti.

Background & Evolution

• 2002: India’s first modern metro system launched in Delhi.
• 2014: 5 cities, 248 km network.
• 2025: 23 cities, >1,000 km operational; 20+ cities under construction or planning phase.
• Represents one of the fastest urban transit expansions globally, driven by Make in India and Smart Cities Mission integration.

Leading Metro Systems (Operational Length, 2025)

City	Network Length (km)	Daily Ridership (approx.)
Delhi	394	65 lakh
Bengaluru (Namma Metro)	96	10 lakh
Mumbai	80.2	8.5 lakh
Kolkata	74	6 lakh
Hyderabad	69.2	4.7 lakh
Chennai	54	3.19 lakh
Pune	33.2	2.18 lakh

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• Kolkata Metro (2024): India’s first underwater metro tunnel under the Hooghly River, a major engineering milestone.
• Delhi Metro: Among the world’s top 10 busiest metro systems; benchmark for urban transit governance (DMRC model).

Fare Structure & Economics

• Minimum fare: ₹10 (standard across metros).
• Distance-based pricing:
  • Chennai: ₹2.14/km
  • Ahmedabad-Gandhinagar: ₹1.2/km
• Fare caps:
  • Bengaluru Metro: ₹90 max for 30+ km.
• Many metros adopt integrated ticketing, digital passes, and NCMC (National Common Mobility Card) to promote cashless, seamless travel.

Institutional Framework

• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).
• Implementing Agencies:
  • DMRC model (Delhi): Public sector SPV.
  • PPP models: Hyderabad, Mumbai.
• Metro Railways (Amendment) Act, 2020 – enabled private participation, multi-modal integration, and urban transport planning reforms.

Policy & Programmatic Support

• National Urban Transport Policy (2006, updated 2021): Shift from “moving vehicles” to “moving people.”
• Metro Rail Policy (2017):
  • Mandates financial viability, PPP participation, and last-mile connectivity plans.
• Make in India Initiative:
  • 80% metro coaches now domestically manufactured (e.g., BEML, Alstom, Titagarh).
• National Common Mobility Card (NCMC): Interoperable payments across metros, buses, and rail.
• Urban Infrastructure Schemes:
  • AMRUT 2.0, Smart Cities Mission, and PM Gati Shakti support urban mobility integration.

Economic & Environmental Impact

• Urban productivity gains: Reduces congestion and fuel loss; Delhi Metro saves ~3.4 lakh tonnes of CO₂ annually.
• Job creation: ~10 lakh direct & indirect jobs (construction, operation, maintenance).
• Transit-oriented development (TOD): Catalyzing real estate and commercial activity near metro corridors.

Challenges

• High capital costs: Average ₹250–300 crore/km for underground corridors.
• Operational losses: Low farebox recovery (<60% in many cities).
• Last-mile connectivity gaps: Poor feeder bus, pedestrian, and cycling infrastructure.
• Ridership disparities: Newer metros (Nagpur, Lucknow) underperform compared to capacity.

Future Outlook

• Under-construction: ~700 km more by 2030 (Ahmedabad, Indore, Surat, Agra, Patna, etc.).
• Tier-2 city expansion: Nashik, Coimbatore, Dehradun, Varanasi in planning.
• Integration with Regional Rapid Transit Systems (RRTS): Delhi–Meerut corridor (2026).
• Goal: 2,000 km operational network by 2030, aligned with SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities) and India@2047 urban mobility vision.

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Centre approves terms of 8th Central Pay Commission

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 Why in News ?

• The Union Cabinet has approved the Terms of Reference (ToR) of the 8th Central Pay Commission (CPC) — the body that determines the pay structure and retirement benefits of Central Government employees.
• The Commission was announced in January 2025 and has now been formally constituted, marking a crucial step toward revising government pay and pension structures.

Relevance:

• GS-2 (Polity & Governance): Constitutional and administrative mechanisms for pay revision, fiscal federalism, and inter-governmental coordination.
• GS-3 (Economy): Fiscal implications of pay hikes on GDP, inflation, and fiscal deficit.
• GS-2 (Social Justice): Wage rationalization, labour welfare, and pension reforms (NPS vs. OPS debate).

Background & Context

• Central Pay Commissions (CPCs) are periodically constituted (roughly every 10 years) to review and recommend changes in pay, allowances, and pensions of Central Government employees and pensioners.
• The 1st CPC was set up in 1946, and since then, seven CPCs have been implemented — the 7th CPC from January 1, 2016 (notified in June 2016).
• The 8th CPC (2025) continues this decadal tradition, reflecting changing macroeconomic conditions and public sector pay dynamics.

Composition of the 8th CPC

Position	Member
Chairperson	Justice Ranjana Prakash Desai (Retd.)
Part-time Member	Prof. Pulak Ghosh, IIM Bangalore
Member-Secretary	Pankaj Jain, Petroleum Secretary

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• Will submit recommendations within 18 months from constitution date (expected by mid-2026).
• Supported by an expert secretariat and administrative staff under the Department of Expenditure.

The CPC will recommend revisions after considering the following key factors:

• Macroeconomic stability & fiscal prudence: Ensuring pay hikes do not destabilize fiscal deficit targets.
• Adequacy of resources for development expenditure: Balancing employee welfare with public investment needs.
• Unfunded pension liabilities: Addressing sustainability of non-contributory pension schemes (especially pre-NPS).
• Impact on State finances: Coordination with States to manage ripple effects on their budgets.
• Comparative emoluments: Benchmarking against CPSUs and private sector wages for parity and retention.
• Work conditions and productivity linkage: Considering performance-based pay and rationalization of allowances.

Scale and Scope

• Covers ~50 lakh Central Government employees and ~70 lakh pensioners.
• Indirectly affects State Government pay commissions, as States usually adopt CPC recommendations with modifications.
• Major Ministries involved in consultations: Defence, Home Affairs, Railways, Personnel & Training.
• Expected fiscal impact: 2–3% of GDP (based on past CPC trends if fully implemented).

Historical Evolution of Pay Commissions

CPC	Year Constituted	Implementation Year	Key Features
1st CPC	1946	1947	Focused on rationalizing colonial pay scales
2nd CPC	1957	1959	Introduced “Dearness Allowance” concept
3rd CPC	1970	1973	Introduced systematic pay structures
4th CPC	1983	1986	Inflation-linked DA system
5th CPC	1994	1996	Recommended downsizing, performance-linked incentives
6th CPC	2006	2008	Introduced Pay Bands + Grade Pay system
7th CPC	2014	2016	Replaced grade pay with Pay Matrix; implemented 2.57x fitment factor
8th CPC	2025	—	To recommend structure post-2026

Expected Areas of Recommendation

• Pay Matrix revision: Likely upward adjustment of minimum and maximum pay scales.
• Fitment Factor: Revision from 2.57x (7th CPC) to possibly 3.0–3.2x, aligning with inflation.
• Dearness Allowance (DA): Rationalization mechanism to link with CPI and inflation index more dynamically.
• Pension reform: Review of Old Pension Scheme (OPS) and National Pension System (NPS) anomalies.
• Performance incentives: Greater emphasis on productivity-linked pay for efficiency.
• Allowances restructuring: Review of House Rent Allowance (HRA), Transport Allowance, and hardship allowances.

Fiscal & Economic Considerations

• Fiscal prudence: Key ToR element — wage hikes must not strain budgetary balance.
• Revenue vs. expenditure trade-off: Increased salary bill (~₹5–6 lakh crore annually) could reduce development spending if unmoderated.
• Inflation impact: Higher disposable incomes may cause demand-pull inflation.
• Positive multiplier: Boost to consumption, housing, and retail sectors due to increased government spending.

Broader Implications

• Inter-governmental impact: States often mirror CPC recommendations, amplifying fiscal implications.
• Labour market signaling: Benchmark for public sector and PSU pay parity.
• Administrative reform linkage: Opportunity to integrate digital HR reforms (e.g., iGOT, SPARROW, e-HRMS).
• Political economy dimension: CPC recommendations often coincide with pre-election cycles and welfare expansions.

Timeline & Way Forward

• Constitution: January 2025
• ToR approval: October 2025
• Recommendations expected: By mid-2026
• Implementation likely: From January 1, 2026, aligning with previous CPC cycles.

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Moving villagers from tiger reserves must be voluntary

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Why in News ?

• The Union Ministry of Tribal Affairs has issued a new policy framework mandating that relocation of forest-dwelling communities from tiger reserves must be “exceptional, voluntary, and evidence-based.”
• This comes amid protests from Gram Sabhas and rights groups against recent NTCA (National Tiger Conservation Authority) directives prioritizing relocation of villages from core tiger habitats.

Relevance:

• GS-2 (Governance): Inter-ministerial coordination between MoTA & MoEFCC; policy balance between conservation and rights.
• GS-3 (Environment): Wildlife conservation ethics, Project Tiger, and coexistence models.

Background

• India’s Tiger Reserves are governed under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and managed by the NTCA.
• The Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 legally recognizes Individual and Community Forest Rights of Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers.
• Frequent conflicts have arisen between tiger conservation goals and forest dwellers’ rights, particularly regarding forced or incentivized relocation.
• There are currently 591 villages and 64,801 families living within the core areas of tiger reserves (NTCA data).

Policy Title & Origin

• Title: “Reconciling Conservation and Community Rights: A Policy Framework for Relocation and Coexistence in India’s Tiger Reserves”
• Issued by: Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA)
• Addressed to: Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC)
• Purpose: To ensure relocation processes align with constitutional rights, FRA provisions, and human rights standards.

Core Principles of the New Policy

• Voluntary Relocation Only: Displacement can occur only if communities consent after informed consultation.
• Exceptional Measure: Relocation should be rare, justified by strong ecological or safety evidence.
• Evidence-Based Decision: Each case must be supported by scientific assessment of necessity (wildlife conflict, habitat degradation, etc.).
• Rights First Approach: Relocation cannot override Individual or Community Forest Rights (IFR/CFR) granted under FRA.
• Consent Mechanism: Gram Sabha approval is mandatory before any relocation step.

Key Institutional Mechanisms Proposed

• National Framework for Community-Centred Conservation and Relocation:
  • Jointly formulated by MoTA and MoEFCC.
  • To define standard procedures, timelines, and accountability for relocation.
• National Database on Conservation–Community Interface:
  • To record and track all relocation cases, compensation, rehabilitation status, and post-relocation outcomes.
• Annual Independent Audits:
  • Conducted by empanelled third-party agencies to assess compliance with:
    • Forest Rights Act, 2006 (FRA)
    • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
    • Human Rights norms and environmental justice principles

Community Rights & Options

• Right to Stay: Communities may choose to continue living within their traditional habitats inside tiger reserves.
• Exercising Rights: Can exercise Individual Forest Rights (IFR) and Community Forest Rights (CFR) under FRA.
• Coexistence Principle: Encourages models of “people-in-reserve” conservation where sustainable livelihoods and biodiversity protection coexist.
• Participation: Local institutions (Gram Sabhas, JFMCs) to be partners, not adversaries, in conservation.

Rationale Behind the Policy

• Addressing grievances: MoTA received several representations from State governments and Gram Sabhas about non-implementation of FRA and forced relocations.
• Conflict resolution: Aims to reconcile wildlife protection with tribal livelihood rights.
• Governance balance: Promotes inter-ministerial coordination between MoTA and MoEFCC for rights-based conservation.

Legal & Ethical Anchors

• Constitutional Basis:
  • Article 21: Right to life with dignity (includes livelihood and habitat).
  • Article 46: Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Tribes.
• Statutory Frameworks:
  • Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 – Recognizes land and habitat rights.
  • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 – Regulates tiger reserves and core zones.
  • PESA Act, 1996 – Ensures Gram Sabha’s role in local decision-making.
• Human Rights Standards: Calls for Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) principle in all relocations.

Challenges Addressed

• Forced relocations violating FRA provisions.
• Inadequate compensation and lack of livelihood rehabilitation.
• Poor post-relocation tracking, leading to social marginalization.
• Inter-ministerial coordination gaps between NTCA (MoEFCC) and MoTA.

Broader Conservation Context

• India’s Project Tiger (1973) evolved from exclusive protection to inclusive conservation.
• The new framework aligns with Global Biodiversity Framework (CBD, 2022) principle of “Rights-based Conservation.”
• Reflects India’s commitment to SDG 15 (Life on Land) and SDG 16 (Justice and Institutions).

Way Forward

• Develop a joint national protocol for relocation and coexistence under MoTA–MoEFCC.
• Ensure transparency through public database and audit reports.
• Promote co-management models where tribals are partners in tiger conservation.
• Strengthen capacity building for State forest and tribal departments to implement FRA effectively.

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Setting up an early warning system for the Himalayas poses unique challenges

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 Why in News ?

• In early October 2025, a sudden blizzard, torrential snowfall, and lightning strikes hit Mount Everest (Tibetan side), trapping over 1,000 trekkers.
• Simultaneously, heavy rain and snowfall triggered floods and landslides in Nepal and Darjeeling, killing dozens.
• This incident has reignited focus on the escalating Himalayan disaster frequency and the urgent need for Early Warning Systems (EWS) across India’s mountain arc.

Relevance:

• GS-3 (Disaster Management): Early Warning Systems (EWS), risk reduction, and NDMA frameworks.
• GS-1 (Geography): Himalayan ecosystem fragility, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), and climate impacts.
• GS-3 (Science & Tech): AI and satellite-based disaster prediction technologies; ISRO–IMD integration.

Background: The Fragile Himalayan Ecosystem

• The Himalayas, spanning 2,400 km across 13 Indian States/UTs, are among the world’s most seismically and climatically volatile mountain ranges.
• They are highly prone to glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), avalanches, landslides, cloudbursts, and earthquakes.
• According to the Down To Earth (2024) report:
  • India experienced 687 disasters (1900–2022); 240 occurred in the Himalayas.
  • Only 5 disasters (1902–1962) → 68 disasters (2013–2022) = rapid decade-on-decade rise.
  • The last decade alone accounted for 44% of all national disasters.
• NASA data: 1,121 landslides occurred in the Himalayan region between 2007–2017.

Key Climatic Trends

• The Himalayas are warming faster than the global average — between 0.15°C and 0.60°C per decade (Springer Nature, 2023).
• Rising temperatures accelerate glacial melt, increasing GLOF risk, while also triggering erratic precipitation and slope instability.
• A 2024 Climate Change journal study warns that if global warming hits +3°C, 90% of the Himalayas could face prolonged droughts lasting over a year.

The Disaster Escalation Pattern

Period	Number of Disasters	Notable Trend
1902–1962	5	Minimal anthropogenic disturbance
1963–1972	11	Start of hydropower & road expansion
1973–1982	13	Increased deforestation, settlement
2013–2022	68	Peak disaster frequency (44% of India’s total)

Inference: The curve shows a nonlinear escalation, correlating with rapid development, glacier retreat, and erratic climate patterns.

Why Early Warning Systems (EWS) Matter

• Definition: EWS are data-driven tools designed to predict natural hazards, alert communities, and minimize casualties and economic loss.
• Current Status:
  • Extremely limited coverage in Himalayan valleys; absence of localized, low-cost, weather-proof systems.
  • Many disaster-prone valleys lack any monitoring network due to terrain, connectivity, and cost issues.
• Core Components Needed:
  • Multi-source data (satellites, drones, in-situ sensors)
  • AI-based data integration for predictive analytics
  • Real-time transmission networks
  • Trained local operators for maintenance and response

Technological & AI Applications

• AI-assisted forecasting: Converts live data from sensors and satellites into actionable warnings.
• Drones: Effective for localized monitoring, though limited in rugged, windy glacier zones.
• Satellites: Useful for remote observation, but costly and bandwidth-intensive for real-time use.
• Hybrid models: Combine AI algorithms, meteorological downscaling, and local hydrometeorological data to generate sub-kilometre precision alerts.

Example:

• Environment Ministry project (Uttarakhand & Himachal Pradesh): AI-enabled EWS giving hailstorm alerts at 100–500 m resolution, aiding apple orchard management (Vinod K. Gaur, NGRI).

International & Regional Precedents

• Swiss Alps (Blatten village): Averted a glacier-collapse disaster after local shepherds manually relayed warnings — underscores the value of community-based systems.
• China (Cirenmaco Lake, 2022): Developed an AI and unmanned-boat-based GLOF Early Warning System, creating hazard maps for flood depth, velocity, and evacuation routes.

Core Challenges in Himalayan Monitoring

• Topographical complexity: Narrow valleys, steep gradients, glacier zones limit sensor deployment.
• Connectivity gaps: Most high-altitude valleys are beyond mobile and internet range.
• High system cost: Satellite links and AI integration remain financially prohibitive for local governments.
• Institutional inertia: Disaster mitigation in the Himalayas is not prioritized in central or state planning.
• Community exclusion: Local populations often uninformed or untrained in EWS operation and response.

Expert Perspectives

• Dr. Argha Banerjee (IISER Pune):
  • “We need EWS in every valley. The lack of an indigenous, low-cost, weather-proof, and easy-to-operate system is the key bottleneck.”
• Dr. Vinod Kumar Gaur (Ex-NGRI):
  • “AI-aided, locally downscaled EWS can capture micro-climatic patterns; local participation is critical.”
• Global experts: Call for integrating citizen-science networks and local data collection to bridge monitoring gaps.

Ecological & Societal Impacts

• Lives & Livelihoods: Frequent floods and landslides displace thousands annually, damaging roads, farms, and hydropower infrastructure.
• Biodiversity: “Altitude squeeze” observed — musk deer, snow trout moving to higher elevations (UN Report, 2024).
• Economic Cost: Increasing repair costs to highways, dams, and rural assets undermine Himalayan development goals.

Policy Implications & Way Forward

• National Priority: Establish a National Himalayan Disaster Early Warning Network (NHDEWN) integrating multiple agencies.
• Localization: Develop low-cost, solar-powered, modular EWS kits for valley-level deployment.
• Capacity Building: Train local villagers, panchayats, and forest guards in EWS operation, maintenance, and evacuation protocols.
• Data Integration: Use ISRO’s satellite data, IMD forecasts, and AI models for real-time risk mapping.
• Transboundary Cooperation: Himalayas span India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Pakistan — need cross-border data-sharing protocols.
• Climate Adaptation Synergy: Align with India’s National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) and National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP).

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Delhi and Cloud seeding

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Why in News ?

• Context: The Delhi Government, in collaboration with IIT-Kanpur, conducted two back-to-back cloud-seeding trials using a Cessna 206H aircraft to induce artificial rain for pollution mitigation.
• Objective: To scrub pollutants and reduce high Air Quality Index (AQI ~294, “Poor”) levels in Delhi during the post-Diwali pollution spike.

Relevance:

• GS-1 (Geography): Weather modification techniques, monsoon dynamics, cloud microphysics.
• GS-2 (Governance): Inter-agency coordination (Delhi Govt–IIT Kanpur), environmental governance mechanisms.
• GS-3 (Environment & Technology): Air pollution mitigation strategies, artificial rain technology, climate engineering ethics.

What is Cloud Seeding

• Definition: A weather modification technique that enhances rainfall by introducing chemicals (like silver iodide or potassium iodide) into clouds.
• Mechanism:
  • Aircraft releases chemicals into existing clouds.
  • Chemicals act as condensation nuclei.
  • Moisture condenses around them → rain droplets form → precipitation occurs.
• Prerequisites:
  • Presence of moisture-laden clouds.
  • Favorable temperature (around -20°C or lower).
  • Adequate aerosol and humidity levels.

Scientific Objective

• Primary: Increase rainfall by converting atmospheric moisture into precipitation.
• Secondary (in Delhi’s case):
  • Wash down airborne pollutants (PM2.5, PM10).
  • Temporarily reduce smog and improve air quality.

Process in Delhi Trial

• Aircraft: Cessna 206H.
• Rounds Conducted:
  • First: Kanpur → Meerut → Marut Vihar → North Karol Bagh → Burari → Sadulpur → Jhajjar → Kanpur.
  • Second: Meerut → Marut Vihar → North Karol Bagh → Burari → Sadulpur → Bhojpur → Kanpur.
• Chemicals Used: Silver iodide and potassium iodide.
• Outcome: No rainfall recorded over Delhi; only light rain near Meerut.

Key Scientific Challenges

• Cloud Dependency:
  • Requires pre-existing clouds with sufficient moisture.
  • Cannot generate clouds in dry or stable atmospheric conditions.
• Timing:
  • Must target clouds before they drift away; delays can render the effort ineffective.
• Geographical Variability:
  • Success varies with topography, humidity, and wind speed.
• Cost and Scalability:
  • Requires aircraft, chemicals, and real-time weather tracking — resource-intensive.
• Short-Term Effect:
  • Only provides temporary pollution relief, not structural mitigation.

Scientific Assessment & Data

• IITM Pune (2023) & IIT-Kanpur Observations:
  • Only moisture-rich clouds are seedable.
  • Delhi’s winter clouds are often too dry or low-altitude.
  • Timing mismatch reduces success probability.
• DTE Report (2024):
  • India’s earlier trials (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu) had mixed results; rain often localized and unpredictable.
• IMD’s Position:
  • Efficacy in reducing urban pollution remains unproven.

Expert Insights

• Dr. Suresh D. K. Khilari (Rajalhand College):
  • Delhi’s weather is too complex for consistent success.
  • “You need the right kind of cloud at the right time.”
• Dr. Thara Prabhakaran (IITM Pune):
  • Clouds differ in aerosol content and temperature; not all are seedable.
  • Need for more research, documentation, and localized models.
  • Anthropogenic emissions alter cloud chemistry, reducing predictability.

Environmental and Ethical Concerns

• Unknown Ecological Impacts:
  • Chemical dispersal may affect soil, water, and biodiversity.
• Artificial Weathering:
  • Could disturb regional rainfall patterns or microclimates.
• Equity Issue:
  • Downstream states may experience reduced rainfall if upwind seeding alters natural systems.

Global Perspective

• Success Cases:
  • UAE, Thailand, China, and the US have developed sophisticated seeding programs using radar-linked EWS.
• India’s Status:
  • Conducted sporadic trials since the 1950s (notably in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra).
  • No standardized success metric or national protocol yet.

Way Forward

• Targeted Research:
  • Study Delhi’s micro-meteorology before large-scale deployment.
• Data-Driven Cloud Profiling:
  • Use radar, satellite, and AI-based forecasting.
• Pilot Zones:
  • Test in Western Ghats or Northeast (higher moisture zones).
• Public Transparency:
  • Publish results, cost-benefit data, and long-term impacts.
• Integrate with Air Quality Plans:
  • Cloud seeding must complement, not replace, emissions reduction.

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Chhath Puja: What makes this festival so dear to the Purvanchali heart

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Why in News ?

• Context: The 2025 Chhath Puja concluded this Tuesday with millions of devotees offering arghya (water offerings) to the rising sun, marking the end of a four-day ritual dedicated to Surya (Sun God) and Chhathi Maiya.
• The festival, traditionally prominent in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Jharkhand, is now celebrated widely across urban India, reflecting the migration and cultural integration of the Purvanchali community.

Relevance:

• GS-1 (Indian Culture): Vedic origins, rituals, and symbolism of solar worship traditions.
• GS-1 (Society): Purvanchali identity, women-led rituals, and cultural resilience amidst urbanization.
• GS-1 (Diversity of India): Integration of regional festivals into urban India — migration-driven cultural synthesis.

Basics: What is Chhath Puja

• Type of Festival: A Vedic Sun-worship festival emphasizing purity, austerity, and ecological reverence.
• Duration: Four days — generally in the month of Kartik (October–November), six days after Diwali.
• Deities Worshipped:
  • Surya (Sun God) – for sustaining life and granting energy.
  • Chhathi Maiya (Usha or Pratyusha) – personification of the first and last light of the day (dawn and dusk).

Spiritual and Cultural Significance

• Symbolizes gratitude to nature and reverence to cosmic energy (Surya) for sustaining life.
• Represents purity, discipline, and community harmony, cutting across caste and class lines.
• Embodies the Purvanchali cultural identity and emotional connection to the homeland.
• Conveys a spiritual philosophy: “What sets, rises again”, symbolizing hope, resilience, and renewal.

Historical Origins

• Vedic Roots: References found in Rig Veda hymns to Surya and Ushas.
• Epic Links:
  • In Ramayana – Lord Rama and Sita are said to have observed the ritual post-return to Ayodhya.
  • In Mahabharata – Kunti (mother of the Pandavas) is believed to have performed Chhath for divine blessing.
• The practice possibly evolved as a folk-Vedic synthesis, emphasizing solar worship and ascetic discipline.

The Four Days of Rituals

1. Nahay Khay:
   1. Devotees bathe in holy rivers (like Ganga) and eat a single vegetarian meal prepared in sanctity.
   1. Marks purification and preparation.
2. Kharna (Second Day):
   1. Day-long fast without water; concludes after sunset with gud-chawal kheer (sweet porridge) as prasad.
   1. Represents self-control and humility.
3. Sandhya Arghya (Third Day):
   1. Devotees offer arghya to the setting sun, symbolizing gratitude for life’s completeness.
   1. Families gather at riverbanks with bamboo baskets (soop) carrying fruits and thekua (traditional sweets).
4. Usha Arghya (Fourth Day):
   1. Offerings made to the rising sun at dawn.
   1. Fasting concludes with distribution of prasad and blessings from elders.

How it is Celebrated ?

• Takes place near riverbanks, lakes, or ponds where devotees perform rituals at sunrise and sunset.
• Songs dedicated to Surya and Chhathi Maiya are sung throughout the festival.
• Entire families participate, maintaining complete purity and vegetarianism for four days.
• Major centers: Patna, Varanasi, Gaya, Arrah, and now Delhi, Mumbai, and Noida due to migration.

Sociological Dimension

• Chhath represents Purvanchali identity and solidarity, especially for migrants in metro cities.
• Creates temporary communal harmony spaces — cutting across religion, class, and gender divides.
• Increasingly celebrated as a public cultural festival in cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Surat.

Unique Features

• No priestly mediation: Devotees perform rituals themselves, emphasizing direct communion with nature.
• Eco-centric ethos: Use of biodegradable materials — bamboo, earthen lamps, and natural offerings.
• Women-led observance: Central role of women (called Parvaitin) symbolizes matriarchal devotion and sacrifice.
• Dual worship of sunrise and sunset: Represents cyclic continuity of life and acknowledgment of both creation and dissolution.

Modern Transformations

• Migration has turned Chhath into a pan-Indian urban festival, with ghats in Delhi and Mumbai specially arranged for it.
• Growing media coverage and state support (Delhi, Maharashtra, and Jharkhand governments declare public holidays or ghat facilities).
• Emergence of eco-Chhath initiatives — discouraging plastic and promoting clean riverbanks.

Symbolism and Deeper Meaning

• Philosophical Core: Acknowledges dependence of human life on solar energy and nature’s rhythms.
• Moral Discipline: Fasting, purity, and self-restraint reflect inner purification.
• Cultural Resilience: Despite urbanization, the festival preserves Purvanchal’s folk traditions and oral songs.