Content

1. Karur Stampede (Tamil Nadu)
2. Kolkata Durga Puja 2025 – Culture Meets Commerce
3. Ganga River Drying Faster Than in 1,300 Years
4. Indian States’ Macro-Fiscal Health
5. AstroSat – India’s First Space Observatory (10-Year Review)
6. Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)
7. National Security Act (NSA)

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Karur Stampede (Tamil Nadu)

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Context

• Incident: Stampede at political rally of Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam (TVK) president/actor Vijay at Velusamypuram, Karur, Tamil Nadu.
• Date & Time: Saturday, September 27, 2025; rally began 7:20 p.m.
• Casualties: 40 deaths (17 women, 14 men, 9 children), 111 injured (50 in GMCH, 61 in private hospitals).
• Trigger: Overcrowding caused by fans surging toward Vijay’s vehicle; climbing on trees/structures, compressive asphyxia.
• Immediate Response:
  • Chief Minister M.K. Stalin visited victims and announced ₹10 lakh compensation for deceased families and ₹1 lakh for hospitalized.
  • Justice Aruna Jagadeesan appointed to probe; visited site and GMCH.
  • Post-mortems conducted on 39 victims; bodies handed over promptly.
• Crowd Characteristics: Mostly young attendees, waiting from morning; presence of women and children increased vulnerability.

Relevance:

• GS-2 (Polity & Governance): Role of state in public safety, police accountability, law & order, freedom of assembly (Art. 19(1)(b)) vs right to life (Art. 21).
• GS-3 (Disaster Management & Security): Man-made disasters, crowd management, NDMA guidelines, emergency response coordination.

Causes & Contributing Factors

• Planning & Organisational Failures:
  • Underestimation of expected crowd size (~10,000 expected vs 27,000+ actual).
  • Inadequate venue planning; congested roads instead of open grounds.
  • Delay in Vijay’s arrival (scheduled noon, arrived 7 p.m.) caused prolonged waiting.
• Security & Crowd Management Gaps:
  • Insufficient police presence and coordination.
  • Lack of crowd flow regulation; multiple bottlenecks at key points.
  • Absence of real-time monitoring and emergency evacuation plans.
• Cultural & Political Factors:
  • Star power of actor-politicians in Tamil Nadu drives fan-mass mobilization.
  • Fan enthusiasm leads to extreme behaviors (climbing vehicles, skipping lunch, skipping hydration).
• Human & Physiological Dynamics:
  • Compressive asphyxia primary cause of death; trampling as secondary.
  • Dense crowd amplifies emotional contagion; non-verbal cues affect crowd behavior.

Pattern in India & Globally

• India:
  • Stampedes common at religious gatherings, political rallies, sporting events, and railway stations.
  • Examples in 2025 alone:
    • Prayagraj Kumbh Mela: 37–79 deaths.
    • Bengaluru IPL victory parade: 11 deaths.
    • New Delhi railway station (Feb 2025): 18 deaths.
  • NCRB (2000–2022): 3,074 deaths in stampedes; ~4,000 events recorded since 1996.
• Global:
  • 2010 Love Parade, Germany: massive stampede.
  • 2022 Halloween, South Korea: crowd crush incident.
  • Difference: Many countries implement stricter post-event corrective measures; India sees repeated high-casualty events.

Governance & Institutional Dimensions

• Polity & Governance Issues:
  • Failure to enforce permissions and restrict congested zones.
  • Police influenced by political pressure; independent enforcement limited.
  • High Court recommendations (deposits for party events) historically under-implemented.
• Disaster Management:
  • NDMA guidelines on crowd management exist but weakly enforced.
  • Lack of codified, nationwide risk-assessment mechanism for mass gatherings.
• Medical & Emergency Response:
  • Coordination among GMCH, private hospitals, ambulances critical but delayed due to crowd size.

Ethical & Social Considerations

• Leader Responsibility: Political leaders must balance fan engagement with public safety.
• Citizen Responsibility: Awareness of personal risk crucial; informed decision-making encouraged.
• Cultural Influence: Personality cults and fan-based politics intensify risk, requiring ethical mitigation.

Way Forward

• Structural & Planning:
  • Mandatory crowd risk assessment before approvals.
  • Digital registration & controlled entry; limit maximum attendees.
  • Multi-stakeholder emergency coordination: police, health services, municipal authorities.
• Technological Interventions:
  • Drones, CCTV, real-time crowd density mapping.
  • SMS/online streaming to reduce physical rush.
• Legal / Regulatory:
  • Make organisers legally liable for negligence; link permissions to adherence to safety norms.
• Cultural & Political:
  • Shift focus from personality-based rallies to issue-based campaigning.
  • Leaders to actively discourage unsafe behaviors (climbing, pushing, waiting under extreme conditions).

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Culture meets commerce at Kolkata’s Durga Puja

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Cultural Significance

• Festival: Celebrates Goddess Durga’s victory over Mahishasura; deeply rooted in Bengali tradition.
• Evolution: Transformed from neighborhood celebrations to city-wide cultural tourism, reflecting urban cultural consolidation.
• Cultural Messaging: Festival incorporates social issues, contemporary politics, and identity narratives, e.g., Bengali Asmita, Operation Sindoor, awareness on food crises and social justice.
• Creative Economy: Artisans, designers, and performers contribute to heritage preservation and cultural expression, blending tradition with modern social commentary.

Relevance:

• GS-1 (Indian Culture): Heritage, festivals, community identity, cultural tourism.
• GS-2 (Polity & Governance): Public-private partnerships, state support, urban governance.
• GS-3 (Economy & Infrastructure): Creative economy, employment generation, disaster preparedness, urban infrastructure.

Economic Dimensions

• Scale & Funding:
  • 45,000 committees in West Bengal (2025); state grants increased from 10,000 (2018) → ₹1.10 lakh (2025).₹
  • Contribution of festival-linked industries: ₹32,377 crore (2019 survey) – ~2.58% of WB GDP.
• Employment & Livelihoods:
  • Direct employment: laborers ₹800–1,000/day; contractors’ incomes +50% over 10 years.
  • Artists earn ₹2–3 lakh per project; top earnings up to ₹55 lakh.
  • Boosts multiple sectors: food, retail, lighting, literature, creative services, transportation.
• Commercialisation: Corporate sponsorships and digital promotion have shifted financing from residents to brands leveraging urban consumption patterns.
• Resilience to Shocks: Torrential rainfall (Sept 22–23, 2025, 252 mm) temporarily disrupted activities but economic momentum restored quickly, showing adaptive capacity of stakeholders.

Governance & Policy Dimensions

• State Support:
  • Grants to committees enhance cultural infrastructure, livelihoods, and tourism.
  • Festival considered a public good with multiplier effects on urban economy.
• Urban Management:
  • Need for crowd control, safety, and disaster preparedness during mega-events.
  • Interaction of politics with cultural celebrations requires balancing public funds, security, and political messaging.
• Public-Private Partnerships: Sponsorship from FMCG, fintech, and other brands shows how private sector engagement complements cultural governance.

Social & Political Significance

• Community & Identity: Festival reinforces Bengali cultural identity and engages citizens in shared cultural expression.
• Political Messaging: Integration of social issues (acid-attack victims, food crisis, Bengal Renaissance) into festival themes serves as soft political engagement.
• Tourism & Urban Impact: Large-scale participation promotes domestic and international tourism, benefiting hospitality, retail, transport, and media sectors.

Environmental & Urban Challenges

• Weather Vulnerability: Extreme rainfall demonstrated urban flooding risks; highlights importance of drainage, rapid response mechanisms, and disaster-resilient urban planning.
• Crowd Management: Dense urban gatherings require safety protocols and infrastructure to prevent casualties and logistical disruption.
• Sustainable Practices: Need for eco-friendly materials, waste management, and energy-efficient lighting, given environmental footprint of large-scale festivals.

Conclusion

• Durga Puja illustrates cultural economy convergence, linking faith, creativity, politics, and commerce.
• Provides lessons for urban governance, public-private collaboration, disaster management, and cultural tourism promotion.
• Represents a case study for employment generation, creative economy, and socio-political messaging in Indian cities.

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Study finds the Ganga river is drying faster than in 1,300 years

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Context

• River Significance: Ganga sustains >600 million people across northern and eastern India; central to agriculture, economy, and cultural life.
• Origin: Gangotri Glacier, Uttarakhand
• Length: ~2,525 km
• Basin Area: ~1,08,000 sq km in India; total basin ~1,08,000–1,20,000 sq km
• States Covered: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal; flows into Bangladesh
• Major Tributaries: Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Son
• Current Concern: Recent studies indicate that post-1990s, the Ganga has entered a prolonged and severe drought phase, the most intense in 1,300 years.
• Historical Benchmark: Compared with the 14th and 16th century droughts, recent drying events are 76% more intense, highlighting unprecedented stress.
• Geographical Impact: Entire basin affected, with serious implications for Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and downstream ecosystems.

Relevance:

• GS-1 (Geography): Rivers, climate patterns, hydrology.
• GS-2 (Governance): Policy planning, inter-state water governance, adaptive resource management.
• GS-3 (Environment & Disaster Management): Drought, water resources, climate change, agriculture, sustainable development.

 

Research Methodology

• Data Sources:
  • Tree-ring reconstructions (Monsoon Asia Drought Atlas) extending 700 AD → present.
  • Hydrological models and streamflow records validated against historical famines and local drought archives.
• Analysis:
  • Comparison of long-term natural variability vs. recent drying.
  • Statistical attribution to monsoon weakening, human activities, and climate drivers.
• Outcome: Current models fail to fully capture observed drying trends, challenging their reliability for future planning.

Key Drivers of Drying

• Climatic Factors:
  • Weaker summer monsoons linked to rapid Indian Ocean warming.
  • Broader climate shifts affecting precipitation and river recharge.
• Anthropogenic Factors:
  • Groundwater over-extraction reducing baseflow.
  • Land-use changes, deforestation, and urbanization altering hydrology.
  • Aerosol pollution impacting local rainfall patterns.

Socio-Economic Implications

• Population Vulnerability: ~600 million people directly depend on Ganga for drinking water, irrigation, and industry.
• Agriculture & Economy:
  • Reduced river flow threatens crop yields, food security, and livelihoods in the Indo-Gangetic plain.
  • Intensifies water conflicts between states and urban-rural sectors.
• Cultural & Religious Impacts: Ganga is central to rituals and festivals; reduced flow affects ritual purity, tourism, and heritage sites.

Policy & Governance Dimensions

• Adaptive Water Management:
  • Planning must account for natural variability + human-driven stressors, not just model projections.
  • Focus on groundwater regulation, river rejuvenation, and watershed management.
• Limitations of Climate Models:
  • Current global models overestimate wetting trends, underestimating recent drought intensity.
  • Indicates need for localized climate modeling and scenario-based planning.
• Inter-State Coordination:
  • Drought resilience requires coordinated policy for water allocation, dam operations, and irrigation scheduling.
• Disaster Preparedness:
  • Integrate drought early warning systems, crop insurance, and community-level interventions.

Implications

• Millennial Perspective: Post-1990s drought exceeds any arid spell in last 1,300 years → urgency for long-term river basin planning.
• Hydrological Evidence: Multiple 4–7 year drought sequences occurred recently, previously rare in historical records.
• Global Climate Implication: Raises questions on global climate model reliability, especially in simulating regional hydro-climatic extremes.
• Urban-Rural Interface: Rapid urbanization + industrialization in the Ganga basin exacerbates drying effects.

Conclusion

• Ganga is undergoing unprecedented drying, challenging both historical assumptions and model projections.
• Integrated human-climate management is crucial for sustainability.
• Highlights the need for localized climate monitoring, river rejuvenation, and inter-sectoral coordination.
• Serves as a case study for climate adaptation, water governance, and long-term disaster planning in India.

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Analysing Indian States’ macro-fiscal health

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Context

• Economic Trajectory:
  • 2010s: Many States prospered through reforms, improved tax collection, and booming growth, some reporting revenue surpluses.
  • Pandemic Impact: Shrinking tax revenues and soaring emergency expenditures pushed almost all States back into fiscal stress.
• Significance: States control budgets larger than many countries, spending more than the Union government on health, welfare, and infrastructure, highlighting the importance of fiscal prudence.

Relevance:

• GS-2 (Governance): Fiscal federalism, intergovernmental transfers, state accountability.
• GS-3 (Economy & Public Finance): Revenue generation, borrowing, debt management, welfare spending, fiscal prudence.

Revenue Generation & Vertical Imbalance

• Internal Revenue Dependence:
  • Maharashtra: 70% of receipts generated internally (2022–23).
  • Arunachal Pradesh: Only 9% internally, relying on Union transfers.
  • Uttar Pradesh: 42% internally, despite reporting a ₹37,000 crore surplus.
• Sources of Volatile Revenue:
  • Kerala: Lottery industry – ₹12,000 crore.
  • Odisha: 90% of non-tax revenue from mining royalties.
  • Telangana: Land sales – ₹9,800 crore.
• Issue: Overreliance on volatile and one-time revenue sources masks true fiscal stability.

Borrowing & Debt Patterns

• Borrowing Trends (2016–17 → 2022–23):
  • Rajasthan: ₹43,889 crore → ₹1,60,565 crore (debt ~40% GSDP).
  • Tamil Nadu: ₹66,143 crore → ₹1,01,062 crore (~33% GSDP).
  • Telangana: ₹44,819 crore → ₹1,26,884 crore (~28% GSDP).
  • Uttar Pradesh: ₹67,685 crore → ₹66,847 crore (~31% GSDP, slightly reduced).
  • Tripura & Uttarakhand: Borrowings low but debt >30% GSDP.
• Pandemic Spike: Borrowings increased universally during COVID; post-pandemic strategies diverged:
  • Increase: Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Telangana.
  • Reduce/Cut: Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra.
  • Maintain/Moderate: Odisha, UP, Tripura.

 

The Welfare Paradox

• Surplus ≠ Development:
  • Many States with reported surpluses rely heavily on central transfers, off-budget loans, and delayed GST compensation.
  • Surpluses may be accounting gains, not necessarily developmental gains.
• Deferred Costs & Fiscal Stress:
  • UP & Andhra Pradesh: Free power and farm waivers financed via special purpose vehicles and guarantees.
  • Punjab: Chronic debt issues.
  • Kerala: Dependency on volatile lottery revenues.
• Fiscal Illusion: Corporate tax cuts, GST cesses, and rebranded social spending mask the true burden on State finances.

Policy & Governance Implications

• Need for Fiscal Prudence:
  • Prioritise capital expenditure for growth while keeping routine costs in check.
• Adaptive Revenue Planning:
  • Reduce dependence on volatile sources like land sales, lotteries, and mining royalties.
• Welfare-State Management:
  • Balance social spending with fiscal sustainability; ensure direct developmental outcomes rather than politically symbolic transfers.
• Vertical Fiscal Imbalance:
  • Poorer States reliant on Union transfers; rich States maintain autonomy.
  • Calls for reform in GST compensation mechanisms and intergovernmental fiscal transfers.

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Astrosat, India’s first space observatory, completes a decade among the stars

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Context

• Launch & Timeline:
  • Launched on 28 September 2015 via PSLV-C30 (XL) from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.
  • Original designed mission life: 5 years; currently operational for 10 years, providing continuous data.
• Significance:
  • First dedicated multi-wavelength space astronomy observatory in India.
  • Enables simultaneous observation across the electromagnetic spectrum from ultraviolet (UV) to high-energy X-rays.

Relevance:

• GS-3 (Science & Technology / Space): Space-based multi-wavelength astronomy, ISRO innovation, observatory management.

Technical Specifications & Payloads

• Five Scientific Payloads:
  • Ultra Violet Imaging Telescope (UVIT): Observes far-UV and near-UV photons; used to study star formation and galaxies.
  • Large Area X-ray Proportional Counter (LAXPC): Observes X-ray binaries, neutron stars, and black holes.
  • Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride Imager (CZTI): Detects hard X-rays; studies black holes and gamma-ray bursts.
  • Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT): Sensitive to low-energy X-rays; maps galaxy clusters and supernova remnants.
  • Scanning Sky Monitor (SSM): Monitors transient X-ray sources; enables detection of nova and black hole outbursts.
• Capability: Enables multi-wavelength studies, critical for understanding cosmic phenomena like black holes, neutron stars, and distant galaxies.

Collaborative & Institutional Framework

• Indian Institutions:
  • ISRO (lead), Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), Raman Research Institute (RRI).
• International Collaboration:
  • Participating institutions from Canada and the U.K. contributed to payload development and data analysis.
• Significance: Demonstrates India’s capability for collaborative high-end space science research.

Key Scientific Contributions

• Black Holes & Neutron Stars:
  • Study of X-ray binaries and accretion phenomena.
• Distant Galaxies:
  • First-time detection of far-UV photons from galaxies 9.3 billion light-years away, contributing to cosmic evolution studies.
• Transient Phenomena:
  • Identification of novae, gamma-ray bursts, and X-ray outbursts.
• Groundbreaking Multi-wavelength Observations:
  • Enabled simultaneous UV and X-ray data, allowing better modeling of high-energy astrophysical sources.

Operational & Policy Insights

• Extended Mission Life:
  • Designed for 5 years; continued operation reflects robust engineering, on-orbit maintenance, and payload longevity.
• Science Diplomacy & Collaboration:
  • International partnerships enhance India’s soft power in global astronomy.
• Capacity Building:
  • Involvement of multiple universities and research institutions has strengthened national space science ecosystem.
• Data Accessibility:
  • Data is made available to Indian and international researchers, promoting open science and research collaborations.

Implications

• AstroSat’s decade-long operation shows India’s leap from space applications to fundamental science.
• Acts as a foundation for future observatories, e.g., LUVOIR-class or X-ray missions.
• Highlights multi-stakeholder governance in Indian space science: ISRO, universities, research institutes, international collaborators.
• Represents a model for cost-effective, indigenous, and multi-wavelength space research, strengthening India’s position in global astrophysics.

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Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)

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Definition & Pathophysiology

• NAFLD: Accumulation of fat in the liver in individuals who do not consume significant alcohol.
• Mechanism: Dysregulation of liver metabolism leading to:
  • Elevated liver enzymes: SGOT (AST) 10–40 U/L; SGPT (ALT) 7–56 U/L.
  • Impaired insulin signaling, often linked with diabetes and obesity.
  • Can progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and cirrhosis if untreated.

Relevance:

• GS-2 (Health & Nutrition): Lifestyle diseases, public health, preventive healthcare.
• GS-3 (Science & Technology / Health Infrastructure): NCD management, metabolic disorders, urban health challenges.

Risk Factors

• Metabolic conditions: Diabetes, obesity, insulin resistance.
• Lifestyle factors: Sedentary behaviour, irregular meals, high-calorie diet, lack of exercise.
• Age & gender: Increasingly reported in young adults (20–40 years), both men and women.
• Comorbidities: Pancreatic disorders, thyroid dysfunction, and dyslipidemia.

Epidemiology & Prevalence in India

• Estimated prevalence of NAFLD: 9–32% of the population.
• Progression to cirrhosis: ~1% in early-stage NAFLD; 1–25% in advanced NASH.
• State-wise prevalence (highest to lowest):
  • Uttar Pradesh: 39.5%
  • Haryana: 30.8%
  • Karnataka: 25.8%
• Rising prevalence linked with urbanization, sedentary lifestyle, obesity, and diabetes epidemic.

Clinical Presentation

• Often asymptomatic initially, detected via routine liver function tests.
• Symptoms when present: Fatigue, abdominal discomfort, malaise.
• Laboratory findings:
  • Elevated SGOT/SGPT levels (50–70 U/L observed in case study).
  • HbA1c levels often >13% in uncontrolled diabetes cases.

Association with Diabetes

• Type 1 Diabetes (T1D): Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells → insulin therapy required.
• Type 2 Diabetes (T2D): Insulin resistance; high circulating insulin levels contribute to fat deposition in the liver.
• NAFLD can precede diabetes diagnosis or worsen glycemic control.

Obesity & Sedentary Lifestyle

• Physical inactivity is a major contributor: Sitting for long periods, inability to exercise due to injury, occupational inactivity.
• Case examples:
  • Sedentary work + knee injury → Grade 3 obesity → fatty liver.
  • Moderate overweight + poor diet → gradual fat accumulation in the liver.
• Weight management and exercise are cornerstones of prevention and reversal.

Diagnosis & Management

• Diagnosis:
  • Elevated liver enzymes (SGOT/SGPT)
  • Imaging: Ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI for fat quantification
  • Exclusion of alcohol-induced liver disease
• Management:
  • Address underlying causes: diabetes control, weight reduction, lipid management.
  • Lifestyle interventions: Low-carb diet, regular physical activity.
  • Medications as needed for insulin regulation or metabolic syndrome.
• Prognosis: Reversible in early stages if underlying risk factors are controlled.

Public Health & Policy Implications

• NAFLD is increasingly a lifestyle disease affecting urban and middle-aged populations.
• Preventive measures:
  • Promote healthy diet and physical activity in schools, workplaces, and urban planning.
  • Screen high-risk populations: Obese, diabetics, and sedentary individuals.
• Healthcare system impact:
  • Early detection prevents progression to cirrhosis and liver failure, reducing long-term healthcare costs.
• Awareness campaigns:
  • Include NAFLD under NCD (Non-Communicable Disease) prevention programs.
  • Encourage regular liver function testing, especially in diabetic and obese patients.

Conclusion

• NAFLD exemplifies intersection of lifestyle, metabolic disease, and public health.
• Highlights urban lifestyle challenges in India: Sedentary work, high-calorie diet, obesity epidemic.
• Emphasizes need for integrated healthcare approach: Screening, lifestyle modification, and chronic disease management.

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National Security Act (NSA)

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Why NSA is in News Recently

• Current context:
  • Recent detentions of individuals in Jammu & Kashmir, UP, and other states linked to protests or “security threats.”
  • Cases involving public figures or activists spark debates on civil liberties and misuse.
  • Courts and media scrutinise whether detentions under NSA meet constitutional and legal safeguards.
  • Links to Articles 14, 19, 22, preventive detention jurisprudence, and internal security governance.

Relevance:

• GS-2 (Polity & Governance): Preventive detention, civil liberties, internal security, constitutional safeguards (Arts. 14, 19, 21, 22).
• GS-3 (Internal Security): Law & order, state powers, public safety, security infrastructure.

Historical Context and Genesis

• Colonial origins: Preventive detention in India dates to British rule, used to suppress dissent during wars and political unrest.
• Post-Independence legislation:
  • Preventive Detention Act, 1950: First post-Independence preventive detention law.
  • Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA), 1971: Widely misused during Emergency (1975–77).
  • MISA repeal & NSA enactment: MISA repealed in 1978; NSA enacted in 1980 (formally operational in 1988) with procedural safeguards.
• Intent: Enable government to detain individuals preventively to maintain internal security, public order, and essential supplies.

Scope and Powers under NSA

• Authorities empowered:
  • Central & State governments.
  • District Magistrates & Police Commissioners (when authorised).
• Preventive vs. punitive:
  • Preventive detention stops potential threats before they materialize.
  • No formal trial or charges needed at detention.
• Grounds for detention:
  • Prejudicial to defence of India.
  • Affecting relations with foreign powers.
  • Threat to public order or essential supplies.

Procedural Safeguards

• Communication: Grounds communicated within 5 days, extendable to 15 days.
• Representation: Detainee can submit representation to the government.
• Advisory Board:
  • Composed of High Court judges.
  • Reviews cases within 3 weeks.
  • Can order release if “no sufficient cause” found.
• Duration: Maximum 12 months, subject to earlier revocation.

Limitations

• No legal representation before the Advisory Board.
• Government can withhold facts citing “public interest.”
• Leaves wide discretion, raising civil liberty concerns.

Legal Remedies

• Representation to government.
• Advisory Board review within 3 weeks.
• Judicial recourse:
  • High Court (Article 226), Supreme Court (Article 32) for legality of detention.
• Revocation: Government can release detainee if threat deemed unnecessary.

Key Cases & Usage

• Recent high-profile detentions:
  • 2023: Amritpal Singh (Sikh preacher) – Assam detention.
  • 2017–18: Chandrashekhar Azad “Ravan” – Uttar Pradesh, Supreme Court intervened.
  • 2020: Anti-CAA protesters in Uttar Pradesh.
• Other uses:
  • Love jihad, cow slaughter, communal violence.
  • Black-marketing kerosene (2012 – Supreme Court struck down).

Controversies

• Broad, vague definitions allow misuse.
• Civil liberties concerns: detention without trial or open evidence.
• Judicial scrutiny shows government discretion often unchecked.
• Debate:
  • Proponents: Necessary for national security & public order.
  • Critics: Blunt instrument that may target dissent.

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