Content

1. Law on Suspension of Sentence
2. India as the Fourth-Largest Economy
3. Ammonium Sulfate in Delhi’s PM2.5
4. Farmer Suicides in India
5. PM-KUSUM 2.0

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Law on Suspension of Sentence

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Why in news? 

• The Supreme Court (Dec 29, 2025) stayed the Delhi High Court order suspending the life sentence and granting bail to former MLA Kuldeep Singh Sengar in the 2017 Unnao rape case, pending appeal.

Relevance : GS-II (Polity)

• Criminal justice & appellate powers under CrPC/BNSS; limits of judicial discretion.
• Balancing Article 21 (fair trial) with victim/witness protection, esp. in POCSO / heinous offences.

Core Concept (Doctrinal Basics)

• Meaning
  • “Suspension of sentence” pauses the execution of punishment after conviction during pendency of appeal.
  • It does not set aside conviction; the finding of guilt remains operative.
• Statutory Basis
  • Section 389, CrPC, 1973 → now Section 430, BNSS, 2023.
  • Operates only post-conviction and is discretionary, not automatic.
• Distinct from Related Remedies
  • Suspension of sentence → temporary halt of punishment.
  • Stay of conviction → exceptional; affects disqualification consequences.
  • Commutation / Remission / Pardon → executive powers, not appellate discretion.

When is Suspension the Norm vs the Exception?

• Fixed-term sentences under appeal
  • General rule → courts lean towards suspension to prevent appeal becoming infructuous
  • Bhagwan Rama Shinde Gosai (1999).
• Heinous offences / Life imprisonment cases
  • Not routine; treated as exceptional relief.
  • Requires heightened scrutiny of facts, risk, and merits.

Governing Tests Applied by Appellate Courts

Key evaluation matrix distilled from Supreme Court jurisprudence:

• A. Nature & Gravity of Offence
  • Seriousness, brutality, societal impact (Shivani Tyagi, 2024).
• B. Strength of Appeal / Chance of Acquittal
  • Must show prima facie serious infirmity or palpable error in trial judgment likely to reverse outcome
  • Chhotelal Yadav, 2025.
• C. Long Incarceration Alone — Not Sufficient
  • Period already undergone cannot be the sole ground in life-sentence matters
  • Shivani Tyagi, 2024.
• D. Risk of Threat / Witness Intimidation / Victim Safety
  • Prior conduct, history of intimidation, power asymmetry, vulnerability.
• E. Likelihood of Delay in Appeal Hearing
  • Relevant, but secondary in heinous crimes.
• F. Conduct of Accused
  • Behaviour in custody, criminal antecedents, compliance with earlier bail.

Operational rule emerging:
Suspension in life-imprisonment cases is justified only when (i) appeal shows credible prospects of reversal, and (ii) release does not compromise public interest or victim/witness safety.

Procedural Safeguards & Requirements

• Reasoned Orders are Mandatory
  • Courts must show application of mind to gravity, evidence, risks.
• Victim / State must be heard in serious offences.
• Conditions may be imposed
  • travel limits, sureties, periodic reporting, non-contact directions.
• Bail on suspension ≠ right — remains judicial discretion tied to case facts.

Special Considerations in Life-Imprisonment & Sexual-Offence Cases

• Courts apply higher caution where offences involve
  • minors, custodial or authority-based abuse, organised violence, or systemic intimidation.
• In POCSO-type contexts, courts recognise the victim-centric and protective purpose of the statute; suspension requires stricter scrutiny of safety and societal interest.
• Jamna Lal, 2025 — trial court findings on minority or core facts are not to be unsettled lightly at suspension stage.

Suspension vs Human Rights & Article 21 Balance

• Rationale for the doctrine
  • Prevents undue hardship if conviction is later reversed.
  • Preserves the right to meaningful appeal.
• Counter-balancing considerations
  • Public confidence in justice, deterrence in grave crimes, survivor rights, equality before law.

Courts therefore calibrate between fairness to the convict and societal / victim-protection interests.

Neutral Policy & Practice Issues (Current Debates)

• Consistency problem
  • Divergent High Court thresholds in life-sentence suspension orders.
• Backlog-driven pressures
  • Delayed hearings often cited — but SC insists delay cannot override gravity in heinous crimes.
• Need for structured guidelines
  • A uniform check-list / risk-assessment framework could improve predictability and victim-safety evaluation.
• Witness-protection integration
  • Suspension decisions in high-risk cases need robust monitoring conditions and accountability for enforcement.

Key Takeaways

• Suspension of sentence = execution paused, conviction intact.
• Routine in short / fixed-term sentences; exceptional in life-sentence / heinous offences.
• Core determinants → gravity, merits of appeal, safety risk, conduct, delay (secondary).
• Long custody alone is insufficient; courts must see credible prospects of acquittal.
• Orders must be reasoned, cautious, and victim-sensitive, especially in POCSO / sexual-violence contexts.

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India as the Fourth-Largest Economy

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 Why in news?

• Govt. statement (2025 reform snapshot) says India’s GDP ≈ $4.18 trillion, surpassing Japan to become the world’s 4th-largest economy; projected to overtake Germany by ~2030 with GDP ≈ $7.3 trillion.
• Real GDP growth (Q2 2025-26): 8.2% — six-quarter high; Q1: 7.8%, Q4 FY25: 7.4%.
• Growth led by domestic demand, private consumption, credit expansion, and resilient services.
• Multiple international agencies project 6–7%+ medium-term growth.

Relevance :  GS-III (Economy)

• Growth indicators, structural reforms, inclusion vs. size, global ranking vs per-capita gaps.
• Policy drivers for sustained growth and move toward #3 economy.

What does “fourth-largest economy” mean?

• Nominal GDP (USD terms) used for global size comparison; reflects output × current prices × exchange rate.
• Real GDP measures volume growth (inflation-adjusted) — relevant for welfare and productivity trends.
• Per-capita income remains much lower than advanced economies — size ≠ prosperity level.

Growth Drivers (Macro-Level Evidence)

• Domestic demand-led expansion
  • Strong urban consumption, services, housing, and credit to commercial sector.
• Public capex & supply-side reforms
  • Infrastructure push, manufacturing incentives, digitalisation, tax base formalisation.
• Financial conditions
  • Benign liquidity, robust banking balance-sheets, rising credit off-take.
• Exports & resilience
  • Gradual improvement despite global trade uncertainty.

Growth Outlook — What agencies are projecting ?

• World Bank: ~6.5% (2026).
• IMF: 6.6% (2025), 6.2% (2026).
• OECD: 6.7% (2025), 6.2% (2026).
• ADB: 7.2% (2025).
• Fitch: 7.4% (FY26).
• S&P / Moody’s: 6.4–6.7% range, fastest in G20.

Inference: Consensus anchors India as a high-growth outlier among large economies.

Macroeconomic Stability Signals

• Inflation below lower tolerance band (as per release);
• Unemployment trending down;
• Exports improving;
• Demand conditions firm, especially urban;
• Credit flows strong → supports investment cycle.

Strategic Significance of Reaching #4 (Neutral Assessment)

Positives

• Scale effects: Larger economy → deeper markets, investment magnetism, geopolitical weight.
• Fiscal capacity over the long run → social sector, infrastructure, technology.
• Domestic-demand model offers insulation from global shocks.

Constraints / Caveats

• Per-capita gaps remain wide; inequality and informality persist.
• Labour participation & skilling constraints in some segments.
• Private capex breadth uneven across sectors and firm sizes.
• Export diversification & manufacturing depth still evolving.
• State-capacity and governance heterogeneity affects outcomes.

What will determine the move from #4 → #3 by 2030?

Enablers

• Sustained 6.5–7%+ real growth with productivity gains.
• Manufacturing & supply-chain integration, logistics efficiency, energy transition.
• Human-capital investments — health, education, skilling.
• Judicial, land, labour, and compliance simplification to crowd-in private investment.
• Financial-sector depth (corporate bond market, MSME credit, fintech inclusion).

Risks to watch

• Global slowdown / geo-economic fragmentation.
• Climate shocks / food-fuel volatility.
• Persistent core inflation or external-account pressures.
• Execution slippages in reforms / capex.

Welfare & Distribution Lens (Neutral)

• Rapid GDP expansion must translate into:
  • Employment intensity outside capital-heavy sectors.
  • Rural income strengthening, not only urban consumption.
  • Regional balance and social-mobility gains (health, education outcomes).
• High-growth with weak inclusion can dampen long-run productivity.

Exam-ready Takeaways

• India has overtaken Japan in nominal GDP to become 4th-largest economy; remains fastest-growing major economy.
• Recent growth driven by domestic demand, credit expansion, macro-stability, and reforms.
• Medium-term consensus: 6–7%+ growth; pathway to #3 by ~2030 depends on investment depth, productivity, inclusion, and risk management.
• Size milestone ≠ per-capita prosperity — structural reforms and human-capital gains are decisive.

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Ammonium Sulfate in Delhi’s PM2.5 

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Why in news? 

• A CREA (Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air) analysis finds that ammonium sulfate — a secondary inorganic aerosol — accounts for ~1/3rd of Delhi’s annual PM2.5 load, rising sharply in post-monsoon and winter months when pollution episodes peak.
• Signals a shift from primary emissions to atmospheric chemical formation as a major pollution driver.

Relevance : GS-III (Environment)

• Secondary aerosols, SO₂–NH₃ chemistry, coal emissions, winter spikes.
• Airshed governance + SO₂ control & ammonia management.

Basics — What is Ammonium Sulfate?

• A secondary pollutant formed in the atmosphere, not directly emitted.
• Chemical composition: (NH₄)₂SO₄
• Formed when:
  • Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) → oxidises to sulfate (SO₄²⁻)
  • Sulfate reacts with ammonia (NH₃) in the air → ammonium sulfate aerosol
• Appears as fine particulate matter (PM2.5) — microscopic particles that penetrate deep into lungs.

Primary vs Secondary PM2.5 

• Primary PM2.5 → Directly emitted (dust resuspension, waste burning, diesel exhaust, industry).
• Secondary PM2.5 → Forms in the air via chemical reactions among precursor gases (SO₂, NOx, NH₃), influenced by humidity, temperature, and sunlight.
• Delhi’s problem: Secondary aerosols now contribute ≥ one-third of PM2.5 — meaning local emission control alone is not sufficient.

How is Ammonium Sulfate Formed? 

• SO₂ sources
  • Coal-fired power plants (dominant)
  • Oil refineries, diesel combustion, brick kilns, industry, shipping
• NH₃ sources
  • Fertiliser use & urea volatilisation
  • Livestock waste, sewage, open drains
• Atmospheric process
  • SO₂ → oxidises → forms sulfate
  • Sulfate + Ammonia → Ammonium Sulfate aerosol (PM2.5)
  • Persists for days, travels long distances, enabling regional pollution transport.

Why is it a concern in India? (Evidence & Scale)

• India is the world’s largest emitter of SO₂, largely from coal-based thermal power generation.
• CREA satellite-based 2024 estimates: high ammonium-sulfate contribution in coal-dominated states like
  • Chhattisgarh (42%), Odisha (41%), Jharkhand & Telangana (≈40%).
• High PM2.5 sulfate shares also reported in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal.

Policy context

• 2023 policy exemption allowed ~78% of coal plants to avoid FGD (flue-gas desulphurisation) retrofits → weak SO₂ control, despite earlier deadlines.
• Experts flag mismatch between official compliance claims vs satellite-based SO₂ evidence.

Why does it matter especially for Delhi-NCR?

• Delhi records one of the highest annual PM2.5 levels globally.
• Secondary aerosols:
  • Travel hundreds of km into the city
  • Intensify the regional nature of pollution
  • Worsen episodes during post-monsoon stagnation & winter inversion.
• Result → Pollution spikes are driven not only by local sources, but also regional emissions + atmospheric chemistry.

Seasonal Behaviour — Why spikes in winter/post-monsoon?

• High humidity & fog → speed up aqueous-phase chemical reactions.
• Lower temperatures → stabilise aerosols.
• Low wind & inversion → trap pollutants near surface.
• Agricultural NH₃ + regional SO₂ → accelerate ammonium-sulfate formation.

CREA estimates:

• ~33% of Delhi’s annual PM2.5 from ammonium sulfate;
• ~49% contribution during post-monsoon & winter episodes.

Health & Environmental Implications

• Deep-lung penetration → cardiopulmonary disease, stroke, cancer risk.
• Long atmospheric lifetime → regional haze & visibility loss.
• Sulfate aerosols influence radiative forcing and cloud interactions.

Policy & Control — What needs focus ?

Current gaps

• Insufficient SO₂ control at coal plants (slow FGD rollout).
• Weak NH₃ management in agriculture, wastewater, and livestock systems.
• Air-quality governance still city-centric, while the problem is regional & chemical-process driven.

Priority strategies

• Accelerate FGD installation & tighten SO₂ emission compliance.
• Ammonia mitigation
  • fertiliser efficiency, urease inhibitors, controlled application
  • livestock waste management, sewage treatment upgrades.
• Regional airshed approach for Delhi-NCR (multi-state coordination).
• Expand chemical-speciation monitoring to track secondary aerosols.
• Integrate meteorology-based early-warning and episodic response plans.

Takeaways

• Ammonium sulfate = secondary PM2.5 formed from SO₂ + NH₃ via atmospheric reactions.
• India = largest global SO₂ emitter, mainly due to coal power → high sulfate aerosol formation.
• In Delhi, ammonium sulfate contributes ~1/3rd of PM2.5 annually and ~1/2 during winter episodes.
• Pollution episodes are regional & chemistry-driven, not only local-source based.
• Effective control requires SO₂ cuts + NH₃ management + regional airshed policy.

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Farmer Suicides in India 

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Why in news? 

• A 28-year analysis of NCRB (1995–2023) by the Centre for Sustainable Agriculture (CSA) shows:
  • >3.94 lakh farmer & agricultural-labour suicides in India (avg. ~13,600/year).
  • Maharashtra & Karnataka report suicide rates ~2.5× the national average consistently since the mid-1990s.
  • Southern & Western India account for ~72.5% of total suicides.
  • Decline after 2010 (linked to MGNREGA & welfare measures) but sharp reversal in 2023, with labourers now forming the largest share of victims.

Relevance : GS-III (Agriculture & Social Issues)

• Agrarian distress, debt-risk in rain-fed belts, labourer vulnerability.
• Role of MGNREGA/insurance; need for income-stabilisation reforms.

Who is counted as a “farmer suicide” in NCRB data?

• Two categories
  • Cultivators (farmers / landowners / leaseholders)
  • Agricultural labourers (wage-dependent rural workers)
• Classification depends on primary livelihood, not landholding size.
• Limitations:
  • Possible under-reporting / misclassification
  • Excludes indirect distress deaths (migration, health collapse due to debt).

Long-term trend (1995–2023) — What the data shows ?

• Total deaths: ~3,94,206 (farmers + agri labourers).
• Peak distress phase: 2000–2009 → >1.54 lakh deaths;
  2002 highest year: 17,971 suicides.
• Decline phase: 2010–2019 → reduction associated with MGNREGA, debt relief, insurance expansion.
• Re-acceleration:2023 → 10,786 suicides
  • 6,096 agricultural labourers
  • 4,690 cultivators
    → shift toward wage-worker distress.
• Analysts caution: part of the 2023 spike may reflect delayed reporting post-COVID.

Regional concentration — Where is the crisis most severe?

Persistent high-burden states (since mid-1990s):

• Maharashtra — 4,151 suicides in 2023 (highest)
• Karnataka — 2,423 suicides in 2023
• Andhra Pradesh + Telangana — >1.7 lakh suicides cumulatively (1995–2023)
• Madhya Pradesh — consistently among top contributors

Pattern

• Crisis concentrated in rain-fed, commercial-crop, input-intensive belts of
  Western, Southern & Central India.

Intra-state contrasts

• Telangana’s cotton-belt districts show structural distress
• Coastal Andhra historically reports lower suicide rates

Structural drivers of farmer suicides (evidence-based synthesis)

Economic & production-risk drivers

• High input costs + rising credit dependence
• Bt cotton expansion (early 2000s) in rain-fed belts:
  • Higher seed & pesticide expenditure
  • Pest resistance shifts, yield volatility
  • Increased financial risk exposure for smallholders
• Repeated crop failures (rainfall variability, droughts)
• Weak price support / market instability
• Limited crop-insurance effectiveness
• Dependence on informal credit → debt traps

Globalisation & policy context (late 1990s–2000s)

• Trade liberalisation & import competition
• Decline in producer price protection for small farmers

Social-institutional vulnerabilities

• Fragmented landholdings
• Lack of non-farm employment buffers
• Mental-health invisibility & stigma
• Weak rural safety nets for labour households

Why are agricultural labourers now more affected? (2023 shift)

• Wage insecurity & seasonal unemployment
• Exposure to food price shocks & inflation
• Lower access to institutional credit / insurance
• Weak bargaining power & limited social protection
• Distress amplified during drought / climate stress periods

Implication: Distress is no longer confined to cultivator-debt crises — it reflects broader rural economic fragility.

What worked during the decline phase (2010–2019)?

Evidence-linked buffers

• MGNREGA — income support during lean seasons & drought years
• Debt relief & loan restructuring episodes
• Insurance expansion (partial protection against crop loss)
• Diversification into non-farm income in some regions

State examples

• Kerala: decline from 1,118 (2005) → 105 (2014)
• West Bengal: reported zero farmer suicides by 2012 (per NCRB)
• Madhya Pradesh: sustained fall during mid-2010s

Limitation: In rain-fed commercial-crop states (Maharashtra, Karnataka), gains remained fragile without deeper agrarian reform.

Neutral assessment — What keeps the crisis persistent?

• Production model risk-heavy: mono-crop, rain-fed, input-intensive systems
• Policy bias toward price exposure, not income stabilisation
• Insurance coverage ≠ effective payout certainty
• Rural labour precarity rising faster than farm incomes
• Climate variability increasing frequency of shocks
• Institutional responses remain episodic, not structural

Way forward — Evidence-backed policy priorities

Risk-reduction in rain-fed belts

• Crop-diversification, climate-resilient seeds, water-harvesting
• Region-specific cotton-pest management & extension services

Income and credit stability

• Strengthen price-support + procurement reach beyond cereals
• Reform crop-insurance (timely claims, basis-risk reduction)
• Expand institutional credit for tenants & labour households

Labour-centric protection

• MGNREGA intensity in drought blocks
• Urban & rural non-farm job linkages
• Portable welfare for migrant labour

Governance & data

• District-level distress-monitoring dashboards
• Suicide-prevention + mental-health services in rural blocks
• Accurate recording of farmer vs labourer categories

Takeaways

• 3.94 lakh+ suicides (1995–2023); peak 2000–09; decline post-2010; sharp rise in 2023.
• Maharashtra & Karnataka = persistent epicentres; South-West India ~72.5% share.
• Drivers: debt-linked risk in Bt-cotton belts, crop failures, price volatility, weak insurance, labour precarity.
• Post-2010 decline linked to MGNREGA & welfare buffers; distress persists without structural agrarian reform.
• Recent shift: agricultural labourers now form majority of suicides → deepening rural vulnerability.

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PM-KUSUM 2.0 

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Why in news?

• Ahead of Union Budget 2026-27, the Union Government is preparing PM-KUSUM 2.0, a redesigned follow-on to the ongoing PM-KUSUM scheme (till March 2026).
• Objective: strengthen decentralised solar in agriculture, with sharper emphasis on feeder-level solarisation, agro-PV models, and improved financial viability.
• As of Nov 2025 → 10,203 MW installed under all components at an expenditure of ₹7,106 crore (MNRE).

Relevance : GS-III (Energy & Agriculture)

• Decentralised solar, feeder-level solarisation, discom subsidy relief, climate-agri convergence.
• Design issues: financing, land/use, execution capacity.

What is PM-KUSUM?

• Launched to:
  • Reduce diesel dependence in irrigation
  • Cut agriculture power subsidies & discom losses
  • Provide reliable daytime power to farmers
  • Support climate & energy-transition goals
• Three components (current phase)
  • A: Decentralised grid-connected solar plants (≤2 MW)
  • B: Stand-alone solar pumps
  • C: Solarisation of existing grid-connected pumps (incl. feeder-level solarisation – FLS)

Scheme outlay (current phase, till 2026): ₹34,422 crore; target ~34,800 MW

Why PM-KUSUM 2.0?

• Strong demand from states, but implementation bottlenecks in Components A & C.
• Need for:
  • More technically robust & bankable design
  • Better integration of feeder-solar + decentralised plants
  • Options like agro-PV and storage, where viable.
• Shift from scheme extension → new phase with revised architecture.

What changes are likely in PM-KUSUM 2.0? 

• Sharper focus on feeder-level solarisation (Component C)
  • Priority tool for reliable day-time power, lowering subsidy burden on discoms.
• Agro-PV inclusion under discussion
  • Elevated panels enabling simultaneous cultivation + solar power
  • Addresses land constraints in dense or politically sensitive regions.
• Higher capex expectation
  • Costs likely to rise if agro-PV / storage are added.
• Greater private-sector participation in decentralised projects.
• Access-to-credit reforms via Agri Infrastructure Fund for Component-A projects.

Financial architecture — What continues from current scheme ?

• Central Financial Assistance (CFA)
  • ~30% of benchmark cost (up to 50% in NE & hilly states).
• Feeder-solarisation (Component C) — current norms
  • CFA up to ₹1.05 crore/MW (≈30% of ₹3.5 crore/MW benchmark).
  • Discom incentives: ₹6.6 lakh per MW per year (₹33 lakh over 5 yrs).
• State + beneficiary cost-sharing continues as core structure.

Component-wise performance & lessons

Component A — Decentralised grid-connected plants

Challenges

• Low discovered tariffs → financially unviable after land & evacuation costs.
• Financing bottlenecks; high margin money discourages farmers.
• Land near substations scarce; delays in conversion & PPAs.
• DCR norms & procedural slowdowns.

Corrective steps

• Routing projects through Agri Infrastructure Fund for concessional credit.
• Increasing alignment with feeder-solarisation demand centres.

Component B — Stand-alone solar pumps

Strengths

• High uptake in diesel-dependent & weak-grid regions.
• Strong farmer interest where power supply unreliable.

Risks / gaps

• Up-front costs, quality control, O&M service gaps.
• Potential groundwater over-extraction without micro-irrigation / demand-side measures.
• Does not supply to grid → limited role in subsidy or discom reform.

Component C — Solarisation of grid-connected pumps (incl. FLS)

Strategic importance

• Seen as most scalable lever for
  • dependable day-time supply,
  • lower subsidy burden,
  • reduced grid stress.
• Local-demand-first model; surplus exported to grid.

Implementation constraints

• Feeder separation delays
• Payment lags from discoms
• Varied state-level execution capacity

Policy direction

• Core focus area for PM-KUSUM 2.0.

Alignment between Components A & C

• Not formally merged, but increasing functional linkage:
  • Component-A plants serving as generation backbone for feeder-solarisation under C.
  • Supplies agri load first, exports surplus to grid.
• Considered a scalable template for next phase; improves land-use efficiency and supports agro-PV models.

Installed vs sanctioned progress (as reported)

• Component A: ~667 MW installed of ~9,964 MW sanctioned
• Component B: ~9.42 lakh pumps installed of ~13.09 lakh sanctioned
• Component C (IPS + FLS): ~11 lakh capacity solarised of ~35.8 lakh sanctioned

Inference: Uptake strongest in Component B, reform leverage highest in Component C, structural constraints persist in Component A.

Why feeder-level solarisation matters ?

Benefits

• Predictable day-time power for irrigation
• Lower cross-subsidy & budgetary subsidy burden
• Reduced technical losses & grid stress
• Enables localised renewable transition in agriculture

Risks / prerequisites

• Requires payment security to developers
• Timely approvals & feeder separation
• Strong state-level coordination & discom capacity

Takeaways

• PM-KUSUM 2.0 aims to re-architect decentralised solar for agriculture, not just extend the old scheme.
• Feeder-level solarisation (Component C) emerges as the central reform lever.
• Agro-PV + A-C alignment expected to improve scalability & land efficiency.
• Financing, payment security, feeder separation, and execution capacity remain critical bottlenecks.
• Outcomes will shape the intersection of agriculture, power-sector reform, and climate transition in rural India.