Content:

1. Section 6A of the Citizenship Act — why it fails Assam
2. Strengthening the roots of an agri-carbon market
3. Making affordable generics more reliable

Section 6A of the Citizenship Act — why it Fails Assam

Context :  A 4:1 majority by a Constitution Bench upheld the constitutional validity of Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, 1955.

Relevance : GS 2(Polity , Governance and Judiciary )

Practice Question : Critically examine the constitutional validity of Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, 1955, in light of its impact on Assam’s indigenous population and cultural identity. (250 Words)

• Provision: Allows migrants from former East Pakistan (Bangladesh) who settled in Assam to acquire Indian citizenship if they arrived before March 25, 1971.

Key Issues with the Ruling:

• Key Justification: Assam (263 km) bears a disproportionate impact of migration compared to other states like West Bengal (2216.7 km), Meghalaya (443 km), Tripura (856 km) and Mizoram (318 km)

Contradictory Points:

• Article 14 (Equality): Court justified singling out Assam based on migration’s magnitude and impact.

• Article 29 (Constitution protects the interests of minorities): The judgment states the influx doesn’t affect Assamese culture , yet emphasises the significant impact on Assam due to its smaller population and area.

Background of Section 6A

• Introduced in 1985 as part of the Assam Accord to address migration from East Pakistan (Bangladesh).

• Citizenship Criteria:
  • Before Jan 1, 1966: Migrants granted citizenship.
  • Jan 1, 1966 – Mar 25, 1971: Citizenship after 10 years residence.
  • Post Mar 25, 1971: Declared illegal migrants.

Constitutional Concerns:

• Violation of Article 29:
  • Cultural and Linguistic Displacement: The Court ruled Section 6A doesn’t violate Article 29, focusing on the abstract right to conserve culture.

• Flawed Reasoning: Overlooked how the influx hinders the meaningful preservation of Assamese cultural identity.

• Demographic Shift: Significant increase in Bengali-speaking population and decrease in Assamese-speaking population (1951-2011).

Demographic and Cultural Impact

• Language Composition Data (1951-2011):
  • Bengali-speaking population increased by 36.36% (from 21.2% to 28.91%).
  • Assamese-speaking population declined by 30.18% (from 69.3% to 48.38%).

• Conclusion: These shifts signify cultural and linguistic displacement, undermining the identity of indigenous Assamese people.

Temporal Unreasonableness:

• No Temporal Limitation: Section 6A allows indefinite applications for citizenship, making it ineffective over time.

• Manifest Arbitrariness: Laws must adapt to changing circumstances; Section 6A has not.

Challenges:

• Burden on State: State initiates proceedings for suspected illegal immigrants, referred to a foreigners’ tribunal.

• No Deadline: Lack of referral deadlines means the law remains indefinitely operational.

• Tribunal Overload: High volume of cases slows the process and causes confusion.

Conclusion:

• Judgment Critique: The ruling seems crafted to justify Section 6A rather than objectively evaluate its constitutionality.

• Cultural Impact: Unchecked migration erodes linguistic and cultural identity of Assamese people, violating Article 29.

• Outdated Policies: Failing to address temporal unreasonableness perpetuates arbitrary policies.

Strengthening The Roots of An Agri-Carbon Market

Carbon Markets : Carbon pricing mitigates climate change by monetising GHG emission reductions.

Relevance : GS 3 (Environment )

Practice question : What are the key challenges facing India’s agricultural carbon market, and how can these be addressed to ensure inclusivity and efficiency?(250 Words )

Mechanisms:

Compliance Markets:

• Regulated by governments or international bodies like the UN.

• Emission caps enforced; companies exceeding caps must buy carbon credits or pay carbon taxes.

Voluntary Markets:

• Operates without regulation.
  • Uses mechanisms like the Clean Development Mechanism, Verra, and Gold Standard.
  • Objective: Reduce GHG emissions and support global climate goals.

Current Scenario in India

• Developments:
  • COP29 (2024) approved a centralised UN carbon market.
  • India announced compliance and voluntary carbon markets in 2023.
  • NABARD collaborated with ICAR and State universities to list five agriculture carbon credit projects in Verra.

• Key Principles:
  • Additionally: Emission reductions occur only because of the project.
  • Permanence: Ensures the long-term durability of benefits (e.g., soil carbon retention).

Challenges in India’s Carbon Farming Projects

• Statistics:
  • Over 50 projects listed in Verra covering 1.6 million hectares, targeting 4.7 million credits annually.
  • None registered yet, resulting in no issued credits or farmer payments.

• Issues Identified:
  • Marginalised communities excluded (only 13% SC/ST participation).
  • Women’s participation extremely low (4%).
  • Communication gaps (45% farmers unaware of project details).
  • Lack of training (60%) and financial incentives caused dropout (28%).
  • 99% farmers did not receive carbon credit payments.

Inclusivity and Sustainability Concerns

• Socio-Economic Exclusion:
  • Land ownership skewed towards non-marginalized castes (63% in carbon farming projects).

• Sustainability Practices:
  • Newly adopted practices: zero tillage, intercropping, reduced chemical fertilizer use, micro-irrigation.
  • Some practices pre-existing, raising questions on fulfilling additionality criteria.

Solutions and Recommendations

• Policy Interventions:
  • Incentivize socially inclusive projects by offering higher prices for credits involving smallholders/marginalized communities.
  • Address communication gaps and provide regular training.
  • Guarantee timely and sufficient financial rewards to farmers.

• Collaborations:
  • Partner with national and international institutions to target suitable interventions.
  • Prevent yield penalties and protect food security.

• Technological Improvements:
  • Use of remote sensing, drones, and satellite imagery for efficient monitoring.

Long-Term Outlook

• Improving Science: Enhanced tools for measuring soil carbon and emissions will make projects more reliable.

• Strategic Focus: Collaboration among policymakers, researchers, and private entities is essential for inclusivity, transparency, and timely implementation.

• Goal: Build trust and incentivize farmer participation to develop a robust agri-carbon market.

Making Affordable Generics More Reliable

Definition: Bioequivalent to branded drugs, generics provide cost-effective alternatives while maintaining therapeutic value.

Relevance : GS 2(Health , Governance )

Practice Question : Discuss the challenges in ensuring the quality and reliability of generic medicines in India. Suggest measures to address these challenges while maintaining affordability.(250 Words )

Role in India:

• Cost advantage due to economies of scale and low production costs.
  • Critical for reducing out-of-pocket healthcare expenditure, which was 39.4% of total health expenditure in 2021-22.
  • Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi Pariyojana (PMBJP):
    • Over ₹5,600 crore worth of generics sold.
    • Estimated consumer savings of ₹30,000 crore in a decade.

Quality Concerns with Generics

• Case Study: PGIMER study on itraconazole efficacy in chronic pulmonary aspergillosis:
  • Findings:
    • Innovator drug: 73% therapeutic drug levels in two weeks.
    • Generics: 29% therapeutic levels, requiring dose escalation or switching.
    • Defects in generics: Fewer and unevenly sized pellets, affecting absorption and bioavailability.

Reasons for Variability:

• Excipients: Differences in binders, fillers, coatings impact dissolution rate and stability.

• Manufacturing Processes: Variations in compression force, granulation methods, and tablet porosity alter drug properties.

• Bioequivalence Thresholds:Regulatory standards allow pharmacokinetic parameters within 80%-125% of the innovator drug.Insufficient for drugs with a narrow therapeutic index, leading to subtherapeutic effects or adverse reactions.

• Stability Issues: Poor shelf life under diverse climatic conditions undermines drug reliability.

Challenges in India’s Drug Regulation System

Decentralised Framework:

• State Drug Regulatory Authorities (SDRAs) hold significant power, resulting in:Inconsistent enforcement of quality standards.Regulatory arbitrage, with manufacturers exploiting weaker oversight in certain states.
  • CDSCO lacks enforcement authority, limiting its role to recommendations.

Stability Testing Gaps:

• Mandated by CDSCO in 2018, but inconsistent implementation across states.
  • No retrospective applicability to generics approved before 2018.

Lax Impurity Standards:

• India’s Pharmacopoeia permits higher impurity levels than U.S. and EU standards.
  • Stricter ICH guidelines rejected as “too expensive.”

Recommendations for Improving Generic Drug Reliability

• Centralised Drug Regulation:
  • Consolidate oversight under CDSCO for consistent enforcement of quality standards.
  • Increase CDSCO’s resources, personnel, and authority.
  • Establish additional central drug-testing laboratories for robust quality checks.

• Enhance Stability Testing:
  • Enforce uniform stability testing protocols across all states.
  • Mandate periodic reassessment of all approved generics, including those cleared before 2018.

• Adopt Stricter Standards:
  • Align impurity thresholds with global benchmarks (U.S., EU).
  • Strengthen the role of the Pharmacopoeia Commission and CDSCO.

• CDSCO Overhaul:
  • Improve regulatory safeguards to detect and eliminate substandard/counterfeit medicines.
  • Implement stringent inspection and enforcement mechanisms.

Need for a Long-Term Strategy

• Equitable Access with Quality: Generics must provide affordability without compromising efficacy or safety.

• Implement Committee Recommendations:
  • Decades-old proposals (Bhatia 1954, Hathi 1975, Mashelkar 2003) emphasized centralised regulation.
  • Action required to restore public confidence in generics.

• Collaborative Efforts: Policymakers, regulators, and the pharmaceutical industry must work together to ensure generics meet global quality standards.