Content:
Speaker cannot be ‘indecisive’ on pleas over defection: SC
Third language choice: Hindi in non-Hindi States, Sanskrit in Hindi-belt
How did the Myanmar earthquake occur?
Ensure education, hygiene, healthcare in rural areas: SC
India’s critical efforts to tackle air pollution could worsen warming
Chandrayaan’s ChaSTE takes the moon’s temperature
Speaker cannot be ‘indecisive’ on pleas over defection: SC
Context
The Supreme Court (SC) addressed petitions filed by Bharat Rashtra Samithi (BRS) leaders seeking timely action on disqualification proceedings against 10 MLAs who defected to the ruling Congress in Telangana.
The core issue: Can constitutional courts direct the Speaker to decide anti-defection cases within a specified period?
Key Observations by the Supreme Court
Speaker Cannot Remain Indecisive
The SC Bench, led by Justice B.R. Gavai, emphasized that the Speaker cannot use indecision as a tool to defeat the objective of the Tenth Schedule (Anti-Defection Law).
The court asserted that it is not “powerless” when a Speaker deliberately delays action.
Role of Constitutional Courts in Checking Delay
Justice Gavai questioned whether constitutional courts, as guardians of the Constitution, must remain inactive if the Speaker deliberately delays a disqualification decision.
If defection occurs in the first year of a government’s tenure, and the Speaker remains passive for four years, can courts remain powerless?
Courts have the duty to ensure constitutional morality and prevent abuse of power by elected officials.
‘Reasonable Period’ for Decision-Making
The SC suggested that while courts cannot dictate the Speaker’s decision, they can direct the Speaker to decide within a reasonable timeframe.
The key constitutional question: Can courts impose a deadline on the Speaker to decide on disqualification petitions?
Constitutional and Legal Implications
Anti-Defection Law and Its Objective
Tenth Schedule (52nd Constitutional Amendment, 1985) was enacted to prevent political defections that lead to instability.
It empowers the Speaker to disqualify MLAs who defect from their party.
However, lack of a strict timeline for deciding petitions has led to frequent delays and misuse.
Judicial Precedents and Powers of Courts
Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992):
SC upheld that the Speaker’s decision on disqualification is subject to judicial review but only on grounds of mala fide intent, perversity, or violation of natural justice.
Manoj Narula v. Union of India (2014):
SC ruled that constitutional morality must guide governance, and courts can intervene when constitutional functionaries fail in their duties.
Recent Judgments on Speaker’s Delay:
SC has previously directed Speakers to decide disqualification cases in a time-bound manner (e.g., Karnataka MLAs’ disqualification case, 2019).
Separation of Powers vs. Judicial Oversight
Arguments for Judicial Intervention:
Ensures timely enforcement of the anti-defection law.
Prevents Speakers from acting in a partisan manner.
Arguments Against Judicial Intervention:
Risks judicial overreach into the functioning of the legislature.
The Speaker is a constitutional authority, and courts cannot interfere with its discretionary powers beyond reasonable limits.
Conclusion and Broader Implications
The Supreme Court’s intervention highlights the persistent issue of delayed disqualification proceedings, often used as a political tool.
If the SC sets a precedent for enforcing deadlines on Speakers, it could bring greater accountability but may also trigger debates on judicial encroachment into legislative functions.
This case could lead to institutional reforms ensuring a fixed timeline for the Speaker’s decision under the Tenth Schedule, similar to timelines set for election disputes under the Representation of the People Act.
Third language choice: Hindi in non-Hindi States, Sanskrit in Hindi-belt
Overview of the Issue
The debate over the three-language formula remains contentious, particularly in Tamil Nadu, which has historically opposed its implementation.
A key missing element in the discourse is recent data on language instruction in schools across different States.
The latest available granular data comes from the 2009 All India School Education Survey, which is outdated and not publicly accessible.
Relevance : GS 2(Governance , Education )
Key Findings from the 2009 Survey
The survey reveals a clear pattern in third-language choices in both Hindi and non-Hindi speaking States.
A. Hindi-Speaking States (Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand)
Hindi is overwhelmingly the primary language of instruction.
Sanskrit is the most common third language, despite the 1968 National Education Policy (NEP) recommending a modern southern language in Hindi-speaking States.
Data Breakdown:
Bihar: 99.1% schools taught Hindi, 64% English, 56% Sanskrit, only 8% taught other languages.
Uttar Pradesh: 94% Hindi, 75.3% English, 65.2% Sanskrit, just 7% other languages.
Uttarakhand: 99.5% Hindi, 85.5% English, 79.4% Sanskrit, only 2.6% other languages.
B. Non-Hindi-Speaking States (Gujarat, Karnataka, Punjab, etc.)
The third language tends to be Hindi, reflecting a default preference rather than enforcement.
Data Breakdown:
Gujarat: 97% schools taught Gujarati, 20.9% English, 64% Hindi, only 2.2% other languages.
Karnataka: 97.5% Kannada, 86.2% English, 30.4% Hindi, only 15% other languages.
Punjab: 79.2% Hindi, less than 1% offered languages other than English and Punjabi.
Supply-Side Constraints Impacting Third Language Choice
Availability of teachers plays a crucial role in determining third-language choices.
Himachal Pradesh case study:
Telugu, Tamil, and French had zero enrollments due to a lack of teachers.
Teacher vacancy rates:
34% of Punjabi teaching posts vacant.
71% of Urdu teaching posts vacant.
Sanskrit: Only 9.8% of 5,078 sanctioned teaching posts vacant → Indicates continued preference for Sanskrit.
Uttar Pradesh case study:
Minimal demand for South Indian languages.
As per Madhyamik Shiksha Parishad (UP):
1 student registered for Malayalam.
3 students for Tamil.
5 students for Kannada.
These students appear as private candidates, suggesting that their schools do not offer these languages.
Implementation Gaps in the Three-Language Formula
Even among States that agreed to implement the three-language policy, actual execution is uneven.
As of 2023-24 (LS reply data):
Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha: Less than 50% of schools had implemented the three-language formula.
Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana: Less than 60% implementation.
Key Takeaways
Lack of supply & demand plays a larger role than policy enforcement in determining language choices.
In Hindi-speaking States, Sanskrit dominates as the third language, not a southern language as intended in the 1968 NEP.
In non-Hindi States, Hindi is the dominant third-language choice.
Teacher availability heavily influences language choice—languages like Tamil, Telugu, and French are absent due to a shortage of qualified teachers.
Recent, detailed data on language instruction is urgently needed to assess the current situation and policy effectiveness.
How did the Myanmar earthquake occur?
Cause of the Earthquake
The earthquake originated in central Myanmar, about 20 km from Mandalay, a seismically active region.
It had a magnitude of 7.7 and struck at 12:50 pm local time, followed by strong aftershocks, including one of 6.4 magnitude just 11 minutes later.
The event was triggered by movement along the Sagaing fault, a major strike-slip fault in Myanmar.
The earthquake’s shallow depth (10 km) contributed to its devastating impact.
Relevance :GS 1(Geography )
Impact of the Earthquake
Widespread destruction: Thousands of people died, and infrastructure, including homes, bridges, mosques, and pagodas, suffered severe damage.
Mandalay, a city with 1.5 million people, was among the worst-hit areas.
The southern Sagaing fault saw the most destruction due to thicker alluvial deposits, which amplified seismic energy.
The total death toll is estimated to exceed 10,000, according to USGS models.
Effects in Bangkok
Despite being 1,000 km away, Bangkok experienced minor structural impacts:
A 33-storey high-rise collapsed during construction.
A swimming pool on a high-rise building overflowed due to seismic seiches (water oscillations triggered by seismic waves).
The long-period seismic waves caused tall buildings to sway, amplifying the effects.
Why Eastern India Avoided Damage
The energy released by the earthquake was directed in a north-south direction, following the trend of the Sagaing fault.
China’s Yunnan province (north of the fault) also escaped damage due to different geological conditions.
History of Earthquakes Along the Sagaing Fault
The Sagaing fault runs 1,400 km, from the Andaman Sea to the Eastern Himalayan bend.
It has experienced several earthquakes over the last century:
1930–1956: Six earthquakes of magnitude 7+.
1839: Ava earthquake (magnitude 7.8), killing 500+ people.
1927: Strong quake felt north of Yangon.
1946: Another magnitude 7.7 event near Mandalay.
2016: A destructive earthquake hit Bagan, an ancient city known for its Buddhist monuments.
Why Southeast Asia is a Seismically Active Region
The plate boundary in Southeast Asia is among the most tectonically active in the world.
It results from the collision of the Indian and Eurasian Plates about 40 million years ago.
Notable seismic events include:
2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake (M 9.2) – triggered a transcontinental tsunami.
1792 Megathrust Earthquake (M 8.5) – generated a tsunami in Bay of Bengal and caused soil liquefaction in Chittagong, Bangladesh.
The Indo-Burmese subduction zone and the Chittagong-Tripura fold belt experience frequent seismic activity.
Geodynamics of the Sagaing Fault
The Sagaing fault forms the boundary between:
Central Myanmar Lowlands and Indo-Burman Range.
The Burma plate (Burma sliver) exists between the Indian Plate and the Sagaing Fault, due to strain partitioning at the subduction front.
The fault is a strike-slip fault, accommodating 15-25 mm/year of lateral movement, with an accumulated slippage of 100-700 km.
It absorbs 50-55% of overall plate motion in the region.
Similar to the San Andreas Fault (California, USA), it produces shallow earthquakes (10-15 km depth).
Lessons from the 2025 Myanmar Earthquake
Myanmar is struggling with the aftermath, worsened by civil unrest.
The Sagaing fault is highly active, meaning future earthquakes are likely.
India, being one of the most earthquake-prone countries in South Asia, should:
Implement scientific safety measures.
Strengthen seismic-resistant infrastructure.
Improve early warning systems and disaster response mechanisms.
Ensure education, hygiene, healthcare in rural areas: SC
Supreme Court’s Observation on Rural Development
The Supreme Court emphasized the importance of hygiene, education, and healthcare as the key pillars for a robust rural India.
A Bench led by Justice Surya Kant underscored that basic necessities must be addressed before secondary initiatives like public libraries.
The Court dismissed a petition that sought a directive for the States to establish a public library in every village, stating that libraries, though valuable, may not be the immediate priority.
Relevance : GS 2(Judiciary , Governance)
Budgetary Allocation for Rural Infrastructure
10-15% of State budgets should be allocated to improving rural infrastructure, ensuring essential services reach marginalized communities.
Financial constraints are often cited by States as an excuse for lack of development, but prioritization of resources is crucial for holistic rural upliftment.
A strong rural infrastructure base is necessary for achieving the vision of a developed India.
Libraries vs. Basic Necessities – The Debate
The Court acknowledged the role of libraries in shaping knowledge, democratic values, and Constitutional awareness, particularly for children and rural populations.
However, it questioned whether public libraries should take precedence over essential services like food, water, sanitation, and healthcare.
Justice Kant posed a fundamental question: Would a starving person prefer a library over food and health services?
The decision on prioritization, the Court ruled, should be left to policymakers rather than judicial intervention.
Key Challenges in Rural Development
Healthcare Gaps:
Inadequate primary health centers (PHCs), lack of trained medical personnel, and poor infrastructure in rural areas.
High maternal and infant mortality rates due to limited access to quality healthcare.
Education Deficiencies:
Insufficient school infrastructure, lack of teachers, and poor access to digital education resources.
Inconsistent mid-day meal programs due to logistical and financial limitations.
Hygiene & Sanitation Issues:
Unsafe drinking water, open defecation in some regions despite Swachh Bharat Mission, and poor waste disposal facilities.
High incidence of waterborne diseases and malnutrition due to lack of hygiene awareness.
Policy Implications & Recommendations
State governments should conduct comprehensive surveys on healthcare, water supply, and education gaps before implementing secondary initiatives like libraries.
Integration of e-libraries and digital literacy programs can complement existing education efforts while addressing financial constraints.
Strengthening corporate social responsibility (CSR) funding for rural education and healthcare infrastructure.
Expanding public-private partnerships (PPP) in rural healthcare and digital education access.
Prioritization framework:
Food security & healthcare access → 2. Hygiene & sanitation → 3. Basic education infrastructure → 4. Supplementary resources like libraries.
Supreme Court’s Verdict & Its Broader Impact
The Court left the final decision on priorities to policymakers, reinforcing the need for evidence-based rural development planning.
Encouraged States to explore innovative measures like e-libraries within financial constraints.
The ruling highlights a larger issue of rural neglect and the need for efficient allocation of resources.
India’s critical efforts to tackle air pollution could worsen warming
Context : The Paradox of Air Pollution and Global Warming
Air pollution control is essential for public health but could inadvertently accelerate global warming.
Aerosols, a key component of air pollution, have a cooling effect by reflecting sunlight away from Earth.
Rapid reduction of aerosols without simultaneous reduction in greenhouse gases could cause a short-term temperature spike.
Relevance : GS 3(Environment and Ecology)
Study Findings on Aerosol Reduction and Temperature Trends
Regions that cleaned their air in the late 20th century witnessed increased warming trends over time.
Areas with high aerosol pollution, especially in urban centers with lower human development indices, have experienced less warming due to the “masking effect” of pollution.
The study warns that abrupt reductions in aerosols could trigger extreme heat events.
Greenhouse Gases vs. Aerosols: Contrasting Climate Effects
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs): Long-lived (e.g., CO₂ persists for centuries), trap heat, contribute to global warming.
Aerosols: Short-lived (persist for days to weeks), reflect solar radiation, cool the surface, but disrupt the water cycle.
Greenhouse gases lead to persistent warming, while aerosols provide temporary cooling.
India’s Energy Dependency and Aerosol Emissions
Coal-fired thermal power plants generate 70% of India’s electricity, releasing sulphur dioxide (SO₂).
Sulphate aerosols (formed from SO₂ oxidation) make up 50-60% of India’s aerosol load, contributing to cooling effects.
Industrialization has historically led to high aerosol emissions, influencing regional climate patterns.
The ‘Invisible Offset’ Effect of Aerosols
Without aerosols, India’s warming could have been 2°C instead of 0.54°C between 1906-2005.
Net cooling of 1.5°C from aerosols and land use changes offset greenhouse gas-induced warming.
Climate projections suggest that aerosol reductions could lead to more rapid warming in India.
Aerosols and Monsoon Rainfall
Aerosols have a complex relationship with precipitation—they can both enhance and suppress rainfall.
Global aerosol cooling (~0.6°C) has been unevenly distributed, affecting Indian monsoon patterns.
Increased aerosol emissions could further disrupt the hydrological cycle and monsoon variability.
Global Case Studies on Aerosol Reductions
China’s aerosol reduction led to more extreme heatwaves in the Pacific and North America.
Indian aerosol emissions may have both local and global impacts on climate patterns.
The Indo-Gangetic Plain is particularly vulnerable due to high aerosol loads and climate sensitivity.
Need for Balanced Climate Policies
Net-zero carbon emissions is not the ultimate solution; long-term adaptation strategies are crucial.
Heat action plans must be strengthened, especially in cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Bengaluru.
Policymakers need to weigh trade-offs—air pollution control benefits public health but can intensify heat stress.
Future Climate Strategy for India
Simultaneously reduce greenhouse gases and aerosols to manage warming risks.
Improve heat action plans in highly polluted cities to mitigate heat stress.
Integrate long-term adaptation policies for vulnerable regions like the Indo-Gangetic plains.
Develop climate-resilient energy policies, transitioning from coal-based power to cleaner alternatives.
Chandrayaan’s ChaSTE takes the moon’s temperature
Overview of ChaSTE Experiment
Chandra’s Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) is the first instrument to measure temperatures in situ near the moon’s south pole.
Part of the Vikram lander on Chandrayaan-3, which successfully landed on August 23, 2023.
A thermal probe that penetrates the lunar soil and records temperature variations.
Findings suggest water ice is more prevalent on the moon than previously expected.
Relevance : GS 3(Science and Technology)
ChaSTE’s Mechanism and Functioning
The probe is equipped with 10 temperature sensors spaced 1 cm apart along its length.
Uses a rotation-based deployment mechanism, different from previous hammering-based probes.
Once deployed, the probe measures temperature variations at different depths.
Penetrated up to 10 cm into the lunar soil, recording data until September 2, 2023.
Previous Failed Missions for Similar Objectives
Philae Lander (ESA, 2014, Comet 67P):
Attempted to deploy MUPUS (Multi-Purpose Sensors for Surface and Subsurface Science).
Failed due to bouncing on landing, preventing deployment.
InSight Lander (NASA, 2018, Mars):
Carried Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package (HP3) with a self-hammering probe (“The Mole”).
Low soil friction prevented it from reaching the target depth of 5 m.
Despite a year-long effort, temperature sensors failed to gather meaningful data.
Why ChaSTE Succeeded Where Others Failed
Instead of a hammering mechanism like MUPUS and HP3, ChaSTE used a rotating device to push into the soil.
Rotation-based deployment provided better soil penetration.
Successfully measured in situ lunar temperature, a feat no previous mission accomplished.
Scientific and Future Implications
Validates the presence of water ice in the lunar south pole region.
Data will be crucial for future lunar missions, especially those planning human colonization.
Success strengthens India’s lunar exploration capabilities and provides insights into planetary thermophysical properties.
May influence future deep-space exploration technologies, improving probe deployment mechanisms.
