Content
Recent digs in T.N.’s Tenkasi reveal presence of Iron Age culture
The mountains mourn
Do cash transfers build women’s agency?
Case Study: Natural farming gains traction in Himachal
The grain of ethanol production
Quantum leap by Indian researchers in boosting digital security
In Morocco, Madagascar now: what unites ‘Gen Z’ protests across countries
Recent digs in T.N.’s Tenkasi reveal presence of Iron Age culture
Why in News
The Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology (TNSDA) conducted its first season of excavations at Thirumalapuram in Tenkasi district.
Excavations revealed Iron Age cultural remains near the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu.
Discovery includes urn burials, a stone slab chamber, and various ceramics, marking a first-of-its-kind finding in the state.
Relevance
GS 1 – Ancient history : Iron Age in South India, archaeological methodology.
Basic Overview
Location: Thirumalapuram, ~10 km northwest of the present-day village, between two seasonal streams from the Western Ghats.
Site Area: Approximately 35 acres.
Dating: Tentatively dated to early to mid-3rd millennium BCE (Iron Age).
Excavation Method: 37 trenches dug during the first season.
Key Findings
Burial Structures
A rectangular chamber constructed with 35 stone slabs, filled with cobblestones up to 1.5 m depth.
Contains urn burials, unique in Tamil Nadu.
Ceramics
Variety of pottery found: black-and-red ware, black ware, black-slipped ware, red ware, red-slipped ware.
Some ceramics featured white-painted designs, a unique feature for the region.
Grave Goods
Pottery included symbols on urns, considered among the most striking discoveries.
Grave goods reflect ritualistic and cultural practices.
Comparison with Other Sites
Similar symbols and ceramic types seen in Adichanallur, Sivagalai, Thulukkarpatti, Korkai.
Helps in understanding regional continuity and spread of Iron Age culture in Tamil Nadu.
Historical and Archaeological Significance
First-of-its-kind discovery in Tamil Nadu: Urn burials with stone slab chambers were not previously reported in the state.
Indicates Iron Age cultural presence close to the Western Ghats, expanding knowledge beyond coastal or plains-based settlements.
Helps reconstruct funerary practices, ritualistic life, and material culture of early communities in southern India.
Adds to the body of evidence on ceramic technology, burial practices, and symbolism in South Indian Iron Age archaeology.
Scientific and Methodological Insights
Excavations employed systematic trenching and scientific analyses.
Artifact study allows chronological placement, typology classification, and comparative analysis with other Iron Age sites.
Provides a baseline for further multidisciplinary studies, including geoarchaeology, archaeobotany, and material science.
Broader Implications
Cultural: Reveals regional variation in Iron Age practices and expands understanding of social hierarchies and ritual practices.
Tourism & Heritage: Potential for archaeological tourism and heritage awareness in Tenkasi.
Academic: Opens avenues for research on Iron Age trade, migration, and technology in peninsular India.
Preservation: Emphasizes the importance of protecting newly discovered archaeological sites from encroachment or looting.
Value Addition
Chronology & Periodization
Iron Age in South India: ~1200 BCE – 300 BCE (regional variations exist).
Characterized by the introduction of iron tools, agriculture intensification, and settled village life.
Coexisted with megalithic practices, including elaborate burials, indicating complex social structures.
Settlement Patterns
Location: Predominantly near rivers, fertile plains, and foothills of the Western Ghats.
Sites include Adichanallur, Sivagalai, Korkai, Thirumalapuram, Thulukkarpatti, T. Kallupatti.
Suggests agriculture-based economy, supplemented by pastoralism and trade.
Material Culture
Pottery: Black-and-red ware (BRW), black-slipped ware, red-slipped ware, coarse red ware; often decorated with white-painted motifs.
Iron Tools: Axes, chisels, sickles, indicative of farming, woodwork, and craft specialization.
Symbolic Artefacts: Ceramics with symbols on urns reflect ritual and religious symbolism, possibly linked to ancestor worship.
Burial & Funerary Practices
Megalithic urn burials: Stone slab chambers, cobblestone-filled graves, cist burials.
Contained urns with human remains, pottery, and grave goods.
Indicates belief in life after death and hierarchical social structures.
Regional uniqueness: Thirumalapuram urn burials are the first slab-chamber type in Tamil Nadu, unlike earlier southern urn burials.
Socio-Economic Insights
Agriculture: Iron tools enabled intensification of cultivation, supporting population growth.
Trade & Craft: Evidence of beads, metal ornaments, and distinctive ceramics suggests local and inter-regional trade.
Social Stratification: Variation in grave goods implies emerging hierarchies and differentiated social status.
Cultural & Ritual Aspects
Symbols on urns indicate early literacy of symbols or proto-writing systems, possibly for clan or identity markers.
Ancestor worship and ceremonial burial rituals show complex belief systems.
Continuity with later Tamil culture and religious practices, e.g., reverence for hills and rivers.
The mountains mourn
Why in News
Torrential rainfall on the night of October 4–5, 2025 triggered over 110 major landslides in Darjeeling district and other parts of north Bengal.
At least 32 dead, 40 injured, thousands stranded, with many missing.
Areas like Mirik, Darjeeling, Kalimpong, Jalpaiguri, and Alipurduar were severely affected.
The disaster coincided with Dashain festival, during which many families had gathered for celebrations, worsening human impact.
Relevance
GS 1 – Geography: Landslide-prone Himalayan terrain, hydrology of Teesta and Balason rivers, impact of rainfall on soil stability.
GS 3 – Disaster Management: Floods, landslides, NDRF operations, disaster preparedness and mitigation strategies.
GS 3 – Environment & Climate Change: Extreme rainfall, climate change impact, hydropower projects and river management.
Basic Overview
Rainfall: ~261 mm in 12 hours caused soil instability, river overflow, and landslides.
Geography: Darjeeling and Mirik are hilly regions cradled between Western Himalayan ranges and alpine forests.
Infrastructure Damage: Roads vanished under mud; Balason river iron bridge collapsed, temporarily cutting off connectivity.
Tourism Impact: Mirik and surrounding areas rely heavily on tourism, now disrupted, affecting livelihoods.
Human Tragedy & Social Impact
Personal accounts reveal loss of children and relatives due to sudden landslides during sleep.
Many families lost entire households, highlighting vulnerability during extreme weather.
Psychological trauma and grief compounded by the festival season, which is usually associated with celebration.
Community displacement: Families moved to temporary shelters like Dudhia community hall.
Geological & Environmental Factors
Terrain: Steep slopes, unstable soil, and heavy rainfall combine to create high landslide risk in Darjeeling hills.
Hydropower Projects: Tala hydropower dam and other projects contributed to flooding after dam gates failed to open.
River Systems: Teesta and Balason rivers played a role in rapid water flow, contributing to soil erosion and infrastructure collapse.
Climate Dimension: Increased frequency of extreme rainfall events linked to climate change may exacerbate such disasters.
Economic & Livelihood Impact
Tourism-dependent communities lost income due to road closures and suspended travel to hill destinations like Mirik and Sandakphu.
Infrastructure damage disrupted local trade and access to essential services.
Additional costs for restoration, temporary shelters, and compensation added to government expenditure.
Humanitarian & Social Implications
Highlighted vulnerability of hilly populations to flash floods and landslides.
Exposed the need for early warning systems, flood forecasting, and community awareness.
Emphasized importance of resilient infrastructure in disaster-prone regions.
Psychological impact on children, families, and displaced populations.
Broader Implications
Governance: Need for proactive disaster management and coordination between central, state, and local bodies.
Environment & Climate Policy: Importance of sustainable land use, forest cover maintenance, and hydropower regulation.
Disaster Preparedness: Integration of early warning systems, evacuation plans, and local community training.
Socio-Economic Resilience: Strengthening tourism, agriculture, and infrastructure to withstand natural disasters.
Landslide Basics
Definition & Types
Landslide: Downward and outward movement of rock, soil, or debris on slopes due to gravity.
Types of Landslides:
Rockfalls: Sudden free-fall of rocks from steep cliffs.
Debris Flows: Rapid movement of loose soil, rocks, and water.
Slumps: Rotational sliding of soil along a curved surface.
Creeps: Very slow downward movement of soil or rock.
Complex Landslides: Combination of types (e.g., slump followed by debris flow).
Causes of Landslides
A. Natural Causes
Heavy rainfall / Snowmelt: Saturates soil, reduces cohesion.
Earthquakes: Trigger slope failure in hilly regions.
Volcanic activity: Lava and ash destabilize slopes.
Steep slopes and unstable geology: Common in Himalayas, Western Ghats.
B. Anthropogenic / Human-Induced Causes
Deforestation: Removes root structures stabilizing slopes.
Construction & urbanization: Roads, buildings, and terrace cuts destabilize slopes.
Mining / Hydropower projects: Excavation weakens natural slope stability.
Poor drainage & irrigation: Waterlogging increases pore pressure in soil.
Regions Prone to Landslides in India
Himalayas: Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Darjeeling, Sikkim.
North-Eastern Hills: Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya.
Western Ghats: Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra.
Other Regions: Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu), parts of Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Do cash transfers build women’s agency?
Why in News
Despite near-universal Jan Dhan accounts and rise of Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) schemes, women’s economic agency in India remains incomplete.
Recent initiatives like Bihar’s Mukhyamantri Mahila Rojgar Yojana (2025) aim to provide seed capital to 75 lakh women for self-employment.
The issue has policy and socio-political dimensions: cash transfers act as both welfare instruments and electoral strategies.
Relevance
GS 1 – Social Issues: Women’s empowerment, gender inequality, digital divide.
GS 2 – Governance: DBT schemes, JAM trinity, policy implementation, and evaluation.
GS 2 – Social Justice: Access to resources, property rights, social inclusion.
GS 3 – Economy: Financial inclusion, self-employment, women-led entrepreneurship, impact on household welfare.
Basic Overview
Goal: Move beyond placing money in women’s accounts to genuine financial empowerment.
Current Status:
56 crore Jan Dhan accounts opened; women hold 55.7%.
Despite 38 crore RuPay cards issued, women’s usage of debit cards and digital payments lags behind men.
Challenges: Low digital literacy, limited mobile phone access (19% less than men), patriarchal norms, distance from banks, and lack of privacy.
Key Issues & Barriers
1. Financial Access vs Agency
Accounts exist but are often dormant or used only to withdraw cash transfers.
Women rarely control assets, take loans, or make independent financial decisions.
2. Digital Divide
Women’s low mobile phone ownership restricts access to digital banking.
Reliance on shared devices erodes privacy, autonomy, and independent decision-making.
3. Socio-Cultural Constraints
Patriarchal norms often restrict women’s financial participation.
Social attitudes limit women from leveraging their bank accounts, savings, or credit opportunities.
4. Structural & Policy Gaps
Less than 10% of banking correspondents are women, reducing trust and accessibility.
Lack of tailored financial products for women’s informal, seasonal, or sporadic incomes.
Insufficient financial and digital literacy programs.
Recent Policy Initiatives
Bihar’s Mukhyamantri Mahila Rojgar Yojana: ₹10,000 seed capital for self-employment, with potential additional ₹2 lakh support.
Other women-focused DBT programs include:
Karnataka: Gruha Lakshmi
West Bengal: Lakshmir Bhandar
Madhya Pradesh: Ladli Behna
Telangana: Mahalakshmi
Programs rely on JAM trinity (Jan Dhan, Aadhaar, Mobile) for direct and transparent delivery.
Path to Economic Empowerment
1. Asset Ownership
Women must have tangible control over land, property, or business assets to leverage credit and sustain enterprises.
2. Digital & Financial Literacy
Providing subsidized smartphones, affordable data, and training.
Establish community-based advisory networks (digital banking sakhis, WhatsApp/UPI groups).
3. Agency-Building
Beyond receiving money, women should be able to:
Grow and reinvest funds.
Engage with markets and participate in new forms of commerce.
Exercise decision-making in household and community economic matters.
4. Institutional Support
Co-create financial products reflecting women’s informal and seasonal income patterns.
Expand female banking agents to enhance trust and access.
Socio-Economic & Political Implications
Household Welfare: Increased income in a woman’s name improves child and elderly outcomes.
Social Justice: Strengthens women’s role as economic actors, not just welfare recipients.
Political Economy: Cash transfer schemes often have electoral significance, influencing political participation and accountability.
Macro-Level: Empowering women financially can boost entrepreneurship, market participation, and inclusive growth.
Case Study : Natural farming gains traction in Himachal
Why in News
Himachal Pradesh farmers are increasingly adopting chemical-free natural farming, supported by state policies and incentives.
The push aligns with India’s broader national focus on sustainable and chemical-free agriculture.
Farmers are benefiting from higher yields, better prices, and reduced input dependence, creating both economic and environmental advantages.
Relevance
GS 3 – Agriculture: Natural farming, MSP, productivity, input management, organic agriculture.
GS 3 – Environment & Biodiversity: Soil conservation, reduction in chemical inputs, eco-friendly practices.
GS 2 – Governance: State-supported schemes, policy interventions, implementation of PK3Y.
GS 3 – Economy: Market linkages, price support, rural income enhancement.
GS 1 – Society: Women’s participation in agriculture, livelihood improvement.
Basic Overview
Natural/Organic Farming: Agricultural practices without synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, relying on farm-produced inputs and ecological balance.
Key Government Support:
Prakritik Kheti Khushhal Kisan Yojana (PK3Y): Launched 7 years ago to promote natural farming in Himachal Pradesh.
Minimum Support Prices (MSP): Turmeric ₹90/kg, wheat ₹60/kg, maize ₹40/kg.
Training & Certification: Farmers are trained and certified via CETA–ARA–NF (Certified Evaluation Tool for Agriculture – Natural Farming).
Current Adoption & Outcomes
Over 3.06 lakh farmers trained, with 2.22 lakh practicing partially or fully across 38,437 hectares.
Farmers report:
Higher profits: E.g., turmeric price rose from ₹60/kg (local market) to ₹90/kg (government procurement).
Health benefits: Reduced chemical exposure reduces farmer illness.
Independence: Farmers produce their own inputs, lowering market dependence.
Women farmers are increasingly participating, expanding wheat and turmeric cultivation.
Drivers of Adoption
Economic Incentives: MSP support encourages market creation for natural produce.
Training & Certification: PK3Y provides knowledge and credibility for natural farming practices.
Health & Environmental Awareness: Chemical-free methods protect soil health, biodiversity, and human health.
Government Backing: Policies create a structured ecosystem including procurement, pricing, and extension services.
Benefits of Natural Farming
A. Economic
Higher yield and better prices due to government support.
Reduced dependency on chemical inputs, lowering production costs.
Opens market for premium, organic products nationally and potentially internationally.
B. Environmental
Enhances soil fertility and biodiversity.
Reduces groundwater contamination and chemical runoff.
Promotes long-term sustainability of hill agriculture.
C. Social
Empowers women farmers and smallholders.
Builds community knowledge networks and reduces dependency on corporate agro-inputs.
Challenges
Initial yield fluctuations during transition from chemical to natural farming.
Need for efficient marketing and supply chains to prevent price disparities.
Labor-intensive practices require skill and training.
Limited awareness and adoption in remote villages due to digital and extension service gaps.
Policy & Institutional Support
PK3Y (Prakritik Kheti Khushhal Kisan Yojana): Training, input support, MSP, and market integration.
CETA–ARA–NF Certification: Validates natural farming practices and encourages market trust.
State Government Procurement: Government agencies procure at higher prices to incentivize adoption.
Broader Implications
Sustainability: Demonstrates a model for eco-friendly hill agriculture in India.
Health: Chemical-free produce is safer for consumers and reduces occupational health hazards.
Replication Potential: Successful model can be adapted for other hill states and tribal regions.
Women Empowerment: Promotes economic participation and decision-making among rural women farmers.
The grain of ethanol production
Why in News
India’s ethanol blending programme, initially meant to support sugarcane growers, has increasingly benefited standalone grain-based ethanol producers.
Investment of ₹40,000 crore in ethanol distilleries has shifted the focus from sugarcane to grains like maize and surplus rice, due to sugar shortages and policy incentives.
Ethanol blending in petrol aims to reduce oil import dependence, support farmers, and promote cleaner fuels.
Relevance
GS 3 – Economy: Ethanol blending programme, agro-industrial investment, rural economy, food vs fuel policy.
GS 3 – Agriculture: Crop diversification, sugarcane economics, grain utilization, government procurement.
GS 3 – Energy & Environment: Biofuels, renewable energy, emission reduction, energy security.
GS 2 – Governance & Policy: Implementation of National Biofuel Policy, coordination between OMCs, distilleries, and agricultural stakeholders.
Basic Overview
Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP): Launched to blend ethanol in petrol, initially targeting sugar mills to provide extra revenue via ethanol production.
Feedstock Sources:
Sugarcane (C-heavy molasses, B-heavy molasses, cane juice/syrup)
Grains (maize, surplus/damaged rice from FCI)
Government Incentives: Higher prices for ethanol from B-heavy molasses, cane juice/syrup, and grains; excise-duty exemptions for grain-based ethanol.
Production Mechanism:
Molasses/cane juice: Sucrose fermentation → ethanol
Grain: Starch conversion → sugar → fermentation → ethanol
Trends in Ethanol Production
Supply Increase: Ethanol supplied to OMCs rose from 38 crore litres (2013-14) to 189 crore litres (2018-19).
Blending Ratio: Increased from 1.6% to over 4% in petrol.
Grain-Based Ethanol Dominance:
2023-24: 672.4 crore litres procured; <40% from sugarcane, >60% from grains.
2024-25: 920 crore litres requirement projected; 520 crore litres from grains, 400 crore from sugarcane-based feedstock.
Maize contributes the majority of grain-based ethanol (~420 crore litres).
Reasons for Grain Dominance
Sugar Shortage: Plummeting sugarcane output (423.8 lakh tonnes in 2023-24; 331 lakh tonnes projected in 2024-25) limits sugarcane ethanol production.
Policy Neutrality: Government procurement policy does not distinguish feedstock, so distilleries can supply grains or sugarcane.
Higher Returns: Ethanol price (₹71–86/litre) exceeds market value of rice, maize, or cane juice.
Economic & Policy Implications
Investment & Capacity: 499 distilleries with ₹40,000 crore investment, annual capacity 1,822 crore litres; OMCs procurement limited to 1,050 crore litres → potential overcapacity.
Food vs Fuel Debate: Grain-based ethanol uses maize and rice that could feed humans or livestock, raising concerns about food security.
Supply Constraints: Ethanol from sugarcane is capped by domestic sugar consumption, while grain ethanol can expand but may affect feed prices for poultry/livestock.
Market Dynamics: Potential to create new markets for surplus grain but requires careful balancing of agricultural production and domestic consumption.
Wider Implications
A. Energy & Environment
Supports National Biofuel Policy and petrol blending targets (20%), reducing fossil fuel dependence.
Ethanol use reduces vehicular emissions and greenhouse gases.
B. Agricultural
Provides an alternative revenue stream for farmers, especially in surplus grain-producing states (Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, MP, UP, Maharashtra).
Could influence crop choice and production patterns, with more maize/rice diverted to ethanol.
C. Economic
Encourages private investment in distilleries and rural industrial growth.
Risk of oversupply and price volatility if ethanol output exceeds OMCs’ procurement capacity.
D. Policy Challenges
Need to balance sugarcane, grain, and food security interests.
Must ensure efficient procurement, blending, and storage infrastructure.
Managing ethanol pricing and feedstock allocation to avoid inflationary pressures on food and livestock feed.
Quantum leap by Indian researchers in boosting digital security
Why in News
Indian researchers at Raman Research Institute, Bengaluru, led by Urbasi Sinha, have developed quantum techniques to generate and certify truly random numbers.
The breakthrough has major implications for digital security, potentially enabling hack-proof encryption.
It is a globally significant achievement under India’s National Quantum Mission.
Relevance
GS 3 – Science & Technology: Quantum computing, quantum cryptography, cybersecurity, National Quantum Mission.
GS 3 – Security: Digital security, encryption, quantum-proof technologies.
GS 2 – Governance: Government support in quantum research and technology commercialization.
GS 3 – Economy & Industry: Potential for startups, innovation, and technology exports in quantum security.
Basics
Random Numbers in Digital Security:
Foundation of encryption, passwords, and secure authentication systems.
Must be truly random (not predictable) for high security.
Pseudorandom Numbers:
Currently used in computers, generated via algorithms.
Adequate for today’s security but vulnerable to quantum computing attacks.
Quantum Random Numbers:
Derived from inherently random quantum processes (e.g., electron behavior, photon states).
Device-independent methods ensure numbers cannot be predicted or manipulated.
Key Scientific Concepts
Quantum Random Number Generation (QRNG):
Uses quantum phenomena such as superposition and entanglement.
Example: Measurement of electrons/photons to produce random sequences of 0s and 1s.
Certification Challenge:
Even quantum devices may be hacked or malfunction, so output must be certifiable as truly random.
Certification ensures randomness is not from device fault or external manipulation.
Entanglement & Bell’s Inequality:
Two entangled particles behave as substitutes across distance.
If measurement results violate Bell’s inequality, the randomness is quantum in origin.
Leggett-Garg Inequality:
Used to certify true randomness at the single-particle level.
2024: RRI generated random numbers violating this inequality in a lab setting.
The Breakthrough
First demonstration of device-independent QRNG using a commercially available quantum computer.
Significance:
Moves beyond controlled lab experiments to real-world noisy environments.
Enhances practical applicability of quantum random numbers for digital security.
Potential Applications:
Hack-proof encryption
Secure communication channels
Authentication systems resistant to quantum attacks
Strategic & Commercial Implications:
Boosts India’s capabilities in quantum technologies.
Opens avenues for startups and research commercialization.
Reinforces India’s position in the global quantum security landscape.
Challenges Ahead
Scaling up commercial applications while ensuring security in real-world conditions.
Continued research and funding required for robust device-independent QRNG systems.
Integration into national digital security infrastructure and financial networks.
In Morocco, Madagascar now: what unites ‘Gen Z’ protests across countries
Why in News
Youth-led ‘Gen Z protests’ have erupted in Morocco and Madagascar, following earlier similar movements in Indonesia, Nepal, and the Philippines.
These are social media–driven mass agitations centered around inequality, poor governance, and quality-of-life issues, reflecting a global pattern of youth disillusionment in developing economies.
Relevance
GS 2: Governance, accountability, political participation, comparative politics.
GS 1 (Society): Youth aspirations, social change, inequality.
Basic Context
Gen Z refers to the generation born between mid-1990s and early 2010s, now in their 20s or early 30s.
They are digitally connected, socially conscious, and politically assertive, often using online platforms like Discord, TikTok, and Facebook for mobilisation.
These protests represent a new form of political participation, less reliant on formal organisations and more driven by networked activism.
Triggers and Contexts
1. Morocco
Trigger: Death of a young woman during childbirth in a public hospital (Agadir, Sept 2024).
Symbolism: Protesters contrasted poor healthcare with billions spent on FIFA World Cup 2030 infrastructure.
Slogan: “Stadiums are here, but where are the hospitals?”
Organisers: Collective called Gen Z 212 (country code for Morocco) using Discord for coordination.
Socioeconomic context:
Unemployment (15–24 yrs): 36%
Per capita GDP (2024): USD 3,993 (global avg: > USD 13,000)
>50% population under 35; frustration with inequality and elite privilege.
Political backdrop: Constitutional monarchy; visible inequality between ruling elite and youth masses.
2. Madagascar
Trigger: Government repression of youth protests (Sept 2024) leading to 20+ deaths.
Escalation: Youth-led movement (Gen Z Madagascar) evolved into a wider anti-establishment uprising, leading to President Andry Rajoelina’s resignation.
Organisation: Initially youth movements on Facebook & TikTok, later supported by civil society groups.
Economic distress:
Per capita income declined 45% since independence (1960–2020).
Widespread poverty and public anger at elite capture of resources.
Common Threads Across Gen Z Movements
Digital mobilisation: Social media as the main tool for organisation and message amplification.
Economic frustration: Youth unemployment, inequality, and declining purchasing power.
Perceived elite capture: Anger against “nepo kids” (nepotism, privilege, and dynastic elites) — seen in Nepal, the Philippines, and Indonesia.
Quality-of-life concerns: Health, education, job security, and state accountability.
Erosion of trust: Young citizens view traditional political structures as unresponsive and corrupt.
Short-lived intensity: Movements gain traction rapidly but often fizzle out due to lack of long-term coalition building.
Structural Causes
Economic:
Shrinking industrial jobs due to automation and globalisation.
Middle-income trap in developing economies.
Inflation and cost-of-living crisis post-pandemic.
Social:
Rising educational aspirations unmet by job opportunities.
Social media exposure magnifies global comparisons and resentment.
Political:
Weak democratic accountability; dominance of entrenched elites.
Repressive state responses erode legitimacy further.
Global Dimensions
Similar Gen Z uprisings seen in:
Indonesia (2020–21): Labour law reforms.
Nepal (2023): Corruption and nepotism.
Philippines: Inequality and political dynasty protests.
Reflects a transnational generational shift in political participation, often leaderless but connected online.
Scholarly Insight
As per Dr. Janjira Sombatpoonsiri (German Institute for Global & Area Studies):
These movements stem from a “crisis of expectations” — youth promised prosperity through education but facing structural stagnation.
Social media enables rapid mobilisation but weak organisational endurance, limiting tangible outcomes.
Implications
Governance Challenge: States must address youth aspirations through inclusive growth and service delivery.
Political Reforms: Need for democratic responsiveness and youth engagement.
Security Dimension: Online radicalisation or unrest risk if grievances persist.
Developmental Focus: Investment in education-to-employment linkages, digital literacy, and job creation