Content
Redeeming India’s nuclear power promise
How different constitutional drafts imagined India
MiG-21: End of an Era
Apache AH-64E Induction: A Major Leap for Indian Army
Systemic Failure in Ensuring Safety of Sewer Workers
Urban India 2030–2050: A Call for Action
Redeeming India’s nuclear power promise
India’s Nuclear Energy Pivot: Budget 2025–26 at a Glance
Focus Area
Budget Announcements
Installed Capacity
Target of 100 GW by 2047 (from 8.18 GW today)
Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)
₹20,000 crore allocated to develop 5 indigenous SMRs by 2033
Private Sector Entry
Legislative reforms to allow private and foreign investment
Legal Reforms Pending
Amendments to Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and CLNDA, 2010
Relevance: GS 3(Nuclear Energy)
The Historical Trajectory: From Vision to Isolation to Reengagement
Milestone
Details
1956
Apsara, Asia’s first research reactor commissioned
1963
Work begins at Tarapore (first nuclear power reactors in Asia)
1974
Peaceful Nuclear Explosion → Global isolation
1998
Pokhran-II → Strategic negotiations begin
2008
NSG waiver allows India to re-enter the global nuclear market
2010
CLNDA introduced — slowed foreign participation due to supplier liability clause
2025
Shift toward private sector and international partnerships for scaling up nuclear power
Why Nuclear Now? Rationale Behind the Shift
Strategic Goal
Role of Nuclear Power
Energy Security
Provides stable baseload power unlike intermittent renewables
Decarbonisation
Low-carbon option to meet Net Zero by 2070
Economic Growth
Powering GDP rise from $4 trillion to $35 trillion by 2047
Urbanisation & Development
India’s per capita power consumption (1,208 kWh) lags far behind China (4,600) and the U.S. (12,500)
Renewable energy (solar, wind, hydro) accounts for ~50% of capacity but only ~20–25% of actual energy generation due to intermittency.
Reforms on the Horizon: Legal, Regulatory, and Financial
Atomic Energy Act, 1962 – Proposed Changes
Issue
Reform Needed
Monopoly of NPCIL
Allow private ownership & operation under safeguards
Fuel Supply & Waste Responsibility
Clear allocation between operator and supplier
Foreign Investment
FDI up to 49%, with safeguards on Indian control
CLNDA, 2010 – Proposed Amendments
Clause
Problem
Reform
Section 17(b)
Makes suppliers liable for accidents—deterring foreign partners
Limit or re-interpret supplier liability to enable partnerships
Tariff & Commercial Disputes
Current Model – Under Atomic Energy Act — Tariff notified by govt
Dispute Example – NPCIL vs Gujarat Urja Vikas Nigam led to conflicting verdicts
Reform Direction – Move to Electricity Act framework with levelised cost model under CERC
Regulatory Framework
Body
Current Status
AERB
Technically autonomous, but under DAE and not a legal entity
Reform Need
Establish an independent, statutory regulator (Bill lapsed in 2011)
Institutional Strategy: Three-Track Expansion Plan
Track
Objective
Standardised SMRs
Use 220 MW PHWR design for scalable, indigenous Small Modular Reactors
Accelerate 700 MW PHWRs
Fast-track land acquisition, licensing, and local supply chains
Revive Global Partnerships
Restart stalled talks with France (EDF) and U.S. (Westinghouse, GE-Hitachi)
Financing & Incentivising Nuclear Power
Challenge
Details
High capital costs
~$2M/MW for nuclear vs <$1M/MW for coal
Lifecycle costs
Nuclear plants last 50–60 years but need funds for decommissioning and waste
Classification
Not yet considered “renewable”, hence not eligible for green finance
Green financing classification
Long-term Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs)
Viability Gap Funding (VGF)
Special tax incentives for nuclear infrastructure
Private Sector Involvement: Opportunities and Roadblocks
Company
Potential Role
Tata, Adani, Reliance, Vedanta
Build, operate, or co-finance new reactors
NTPC-NPCIL JV
Four 700 MW units at Mahi Banswara, Rajasthan
REC JV
New financial partnership to support nuclear infrastructure
JVs with public sector units already underway — but scaling to 100 GW will require private and foreign players.
Global Momentum in Nuclear Energy
Event
Significance
COP28 (Dubai, 2023)
Declaration to triple global nuclear energy
IAEA–World Bank 2024 Agreement
Nuclear backed as key for developing economies
Ajay Banga (World Bank President)
Called nuclear essential for base-load power in modern economies
Conclusion: What India Must Now Do
India’s nuclear renaissance must be decisive, comprehensive, and inclusive. The key pillars:
Legislative reform to allow private participation while ensuring safety, accountability, and public trust
Global partnerships based on updated liability and financing frameworks
Institutional overhaul with an independent nuclear regulator
Green classification and incentives for nuclear as low-carbon energy
Fast-tracked projects combining scale (700 MW) with modular innovation (SMRs)
Nuclear power is India’s best shot at clean, reliable base-load electricity, essential for a high-growth, low-carbon future.
How different constitutional drafts imagined India
Context: India’s Constitutional Journey Before 1950
Between 1895 and 1948, at least five major constitutional drafts were proposed by diverse political actors—liberals, radicals, socialists, and cultural nationalists. These drafts reflected competing visions of sovereignty, democracy, federalism, economic justice, and identity.
Relevance : GS 2(Constitution and Polity)
The Five Key Drafts: Origins & Philosophical Anchors
Year
Draft
Author/Group
Ideological Leaning
1895
Constitution of India Bill
Early nationalists (e.g., B.G. Tilak)
Liberal constitutionalism
1944
Constitution of Free India
M.N. Roy, Radical Democratic Party
Radical humanist, participatory democracy
1944
Hindusthan Free State Act
Hindu Mahasabha (right-wing nationalists)
Cultural nationalism + liberal guarantees
1946
Gandhian Constitution for Free India
Shriman Narayan Agarwal (foreword by Gandhi)
Village-centric decentralism, moral republicanism
1948
Socialist Party Draft
Jayaprakash Narayan
Democratic socialism
Comparative Thematic Analysis
1. Democracy & Sovereignty
1895 Bill: Emphasised civil liberties and representative democracy but within British dominion.
Roy’s Draft (1944): Participatory democracy with right to revolt and citizens’ committees—an anti-elitist model.
Hindusthan Free State: Asserted unitary sovereignty but with democratic elements like elections and judicial review.
Gandhian Draft: Sovereignty vested in self-sufficient villages, led by moral authority.
Socialist Draft: Unicameral legislature based on class representation (workers, peasants, intellectuals)—radical departure from liberal democracy.
2. Civil Liberties & Rights
Draft
Civil Liberties
Socio-Economic Rights
1895 Bill
Strong (speech, property, equality)
Absent
Roy (1944)
Strong + Right to revolt
Binding, justiciable socio-economic rights
Hindusthan Free State
Strong religious freedoms, anti-discrimination
Minimal economic guarantees
Gandhian (1946)
Focus on duties/community over formal rights
Rural economic self-reliance, minimal state role
Socialist (1948)
Civil liberties secondary
Core focus: Economic democracy & equality
Roy’s draft uniquely made socio-economic rights enforceable, unlike the 1950 Constitution’s non-justiciable Directive Principles.
3. Centralisation vs Decentralisation
Roy & Gandhi: Advocated decentralisation but differed:
Roy: Federalism + institutional oversight.
Gandhi: Gram swaraj (village autonomy) rooted in moral norms.
Socialists & Hindusthan Draft: Supported centralised control for economic restructuring or national cohesion.
1895: Silent on federal structure, assuming British-style parliamentary setup.
The tension between unity and local autonomy was central to these early debates.
4. Economic Vision
Draft
Economic Model
Gandhian
Minimalist, rural self-reliance, trusteeship
Roy
Democratic economic planning, mixed economy
Socialist Party
State socialism, nationalisation, planning commission
Hindusthan Draft
Silent on redistribution, strong on cohesion
1895 Bill
No mention of economic justice or planning
These drafts represent the full spectrum from agrarian minimalism to radical socialism, anticipating later debates on India’s economic model.
5. Cultural Identity & Secularism
Roy & Socialist drafts: Strongly pluralistic and secular.
Hindusthan Free State: Advocated one culture/one law, but included explicit religious freedom, no state religion, and caste equality—an ideologically hybrid document.
Gandhian: Rooted in Indian traditions, emphasised communal harmony over majoritarianism.
1895 Bill: Avoided identity politics, sticking to a neutral liberal template.
6. Unique & Surprising Features
Draft
Unique Element
Roy
Right to revolt, participatory oversight via citizens’ committees
Gandhian
Right to bear arms despite ahimsa orientation
Hindusthan
Right of secession, blending cultural nationalism with formal secularism
Socialist
Class-based legislature, gender equality before independence
1895
Early model of liberal rights under imperial framework
Contradictions (e.g., Gandhi’s right to arms) reflect realism amid idealism—showing the complexity of state-building ideologies.
Legacy & Influence on the 1950 Constitution
Draft
Legacy in Final Constitution
1895 Bill
Civil liberties, parliamentary form, separation of powers
Roy’s Draft
Bill of Rights, decentralisation, participatory federalism
Gandhian
Idea of Panchayati Raj, trusteeship philosophy (Directive Principles)
Socialist Draft
Economic justice, land reform, welfare state ideas (Directive Principles)
Hindusthan Free State
National cohesion + formal secularism; not adopted but influenced debates on identity
The 1950 Constitution synthesized diverse ideas — liberal rights, economic justice, decentralisation, and cultural pluralism — though not always in their fullest or radical form.
Conclusion: The Prehistory of the Republic
India’s road to constitutional democracy was not linear. These early drafts:
Captured ideological ferment and competing futures
Anticipated modern debates on federalism, rights, secularism, and state power
Reflected a rich democratic imagination even under colonialism
Though not adopted wholesale, these documents deeply influenced the spirit and substance of India’s final Constitution—testament to the pluralistic and contested origins of Indian republicanism.
MiG-21: End of an Era
Historical Significance
India procured over 700 MiG-21 fighter aircraft since the 1960s.
Originally from the Soviet Union, many units were domestically produced by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
Served as the backbone of the IAF’s combat fleet for over 5 decades.
Relevance : GS 3(Defence , Internal Security)
Operational Use & Combat Record
Participated in multiple wars:
1971 India-Pakistan War
Kargil Conflict (1999)
Balakot Airstrikes (2019) – then Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman shot down a Pakistani F-16 using a MiG-21 Bison, before being shot down himself.
Accidents & Safety Concerns
Metric
Value
Total MiG-21 variants inducted
700
Pilots killed in crashes
170
Civilians killed in accidents
40
Common nickname
“Flying Coffin” due to high crash rate
The MiG-21’s prolonged service and aging design made it a liability despite mid-life upgrades.
Current Status
Two squadrons remain (36 aircraft):
23 Squadron “Panthers”
No. 3 Squadron “Cobras”
Both stationed at Nal Airbase, Rajasthan.
Future Impact
After phasing out MiG-21, IAF’s squadron strength will drop to 29 (against the sanctioned strength of 42).
This could affect IAF’s full-spectrum deterrence unless new aircraft are inducted swiftly (e.g., Tejas Mk-1A, Rafale, or future AMCA).
Apache AH-64E Induction: A Major Leap for Indian Army
Recent Induction
On July 23, 2025, Indian Army received first batch of 3 Apache AH-64E helicopters from the U.S. at Hindon Airbase.
Induction conducted under Joint Receipt Inspection Protocol before final deployment.
Relevance : GS 3(Internal Security , Defence )
Deployment Plans
Will be deployed by Army Aviation Corps in Jodhpur.
Focus on Western Front (Pakistan border) and high-altitude warfare (e.g., Ladakh, Siachen).
Strategic Advantages
Capability
Details
Firepower
Equipped with Hellfire missiles, Hydra rockets, and 30mm M230 chain gun
Avionics
Advanced sensors, radar, night-vision, and electronic warfare capabilities
Terrain Versatility
Optimised for high-altitude and all-weather combat operations
AI/ISR Integration
Supports network-centric warfare and real-time battlefield visibility
The Apache is a combat-proven platform, extensively used in Iraq, Afghanistan, and global theatres.
Modernisation Push
India signed a deal in 2020 for 6 Apache helicopters exclusively for the Army (separate from IAF’s 22 Apaches).
Apache marks the first heavy-attack helicopter induction for Indian Army aviation.
Strategic Context
Boosts independent offensive strike capability for Army, especially in:
Anti-armor operations
Close air support
Border skirmishes with China and Pakistan
Comparative Force Modernisation
Feature
MiG-21
Apache AH-64E
Entry into Service
1963
2025 (Indian Army)
Role
Supersonic fighter aircraft
Heavy attack helicopter
Manufacturer
Mikoyan-Gurevich (USSR), HAL
Boeing (USA)
Retirement Status
Phasing out
Just inducted
Technological Status
Obsolete
State-of-the-art
Strategic Implications for India
IAF Combat Readiness Challenges
Squadron strength shrinking to 29 vs. required 42.
Urgency to expedite Tejas Mk-1A and Rafale deliveries.
Risks during a two-front conflict scenario.
Army Air Power Autonomy
Apache enhances Army’s strike power without relying on IAF.
Boosts capability in mountain warfare and border conflicts.
Strengthens India’s response posture in Western and Northern theatres.
Indigenisation vs. Imports
While Apaches are imported, Indian push for Atmanirbhar Bharat continues with HAL’s Light Combat Helicopter (LCH) and Rudra.
Balanced approach needed: Strategic imports + indigenous development.
Conclusion
The MiG-21 phase-out and Apache induction together represent a generational shift in Indian military aviation:
A legacy platform exits after decades of both glory and tragedy.
A modern, lethal system enters, enabling new operational doctrines for the Army.
These developments reflect India’s broader military modernisation drive — but also highlight critical gaps (especially in IAF’s force levels) that must be addressed swiftly to maintain credible deterrence.
Systemic Failure in Ensuring Safety of Sewer Workers
Over 90% of sewer-related deaths in India (2022–23) occurred without the use of any safety gear, reflecting a grim failure of institutional safeguards and persistent hazardous manual cleaning practices despite legal bans on manual scavenging.
Relevance : GS 2(Social Justice)
Data Snapshot: Scale of the Problem
Metric
Value
Total hazardous cleaning deaths analysed
54 deaths
Time Period Covered
2022–2023
Districts Covered
17 districts
States/UTs Covered
8
Total deaths (govt. data)
150 deaths
Deaths without any safety gear
49 out of 54 (90.7%)
Deaths with minimal PPE (gloves/gumboots)
5 cases
Deaths where mechanical cleaning gear was used
2 cases only
Deaths with safety training prior to work
1 case only
Consent not taken before work
27 cases
Consent taken but without counselling
18 cases
Structural & Legal Context
Legal Provisions
Manual Scavenging is outlawed under:
Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013
Hazardous cleaning without safety gear is illegal under:
Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers Rules, 2013
The MS Rules, 2013 require:
Protective equipment
Mechanised tools
Safety training
Consent and risk communication
Institutional Lapses: Social Audit Insights
1. PPE Availability & Equipment Readiness
In 47 of 54 deaths, no mechanized equipment or safety gear was available.
Only two instances reported presence of safety equipment.
Only one case showed safety training was provided.
In 45 cases, concerned agencies had no equipment readiness.
Reflects administrative negligence and token compliance with safety norms.
2. Consent & Worker Awareness
No consent in 27 cases.
In 18 cases where written consent was taken, no counselling on risks was provided.
Indicates uninformed and coerced participation in hazardous work.
3. Hiring Patterns: Exploitative Structures
Hiring Type
No. of Cases
Personally/Individually contracted
38
Government agency employed
5
Public Sector Unit but subcontracted to private
3
Shows rampant outsourcing and informalisation, diluting accountability.
4. Post-Death Response: Poor Awareness Efforts
Awareness drives conducted only in 7 deaths (Chennai, Kancheepuram, Satara).
Indicates reactive rather than preventive approach by authorities.
Policy Update: The NAMASTE Scheme (2023)
Objective:
Eliminate hazardous sewer/septic tank cleaning and ensure dignity and safety for sanitation workers.
Progress (as of July 2025):
Metric
Value
Workers identified under NAMASTE
84,902
States/UTs covered
36
Provided with PPE kits/safety gear
~42,000 (just over 50%)
Positive start but coverage is still halfway, training and mechanisation lag behind.
Declarations vs. Ground Reality
Govt. claim: Manual scavenging is eliminated.
Reality: The same deaths due to manual cleaning of sewers without safety gear indicate persistence of de facto manual scavenging.
Mismatch between legal abolition and lived experiences.
Recommendations
Legal & Administrative Reforms
Enforce penal liability on contractors and officials under the MS Rules, 2013.
Mandate third-party safety audits of all urban local bodies.
Institutional Accountability
Make mechanisation mandatory across all ULBs (urban local bodies).
Maintain publicly accessible real-time dashboards for death tracking and equipment readiness.
Worker-Centric Reforms
Ensure full coverage of PPE kits + training under NAMASTE by 2026.
Provide life insurance, health cover, and legal aid to families of victims.
Broader Implications
Social Justice Deficit: Marginalised communities, especially Dalits, continue to bear the brunt of sewer deaths.
Policy-Implementation Gap: Repeated declarations of ending manual scavenging ring hollow unless backed by institutional transformation and mechanisation.
India’s Urban Shame: In a Smart Cities and Swachh Bharat era, manual sewer deaths are a stark contradiction to urban development claims.
Conclusion
Despite strong laws and public schemes like NAMASTE, manual sewer cleaning remains deadly due to:
Institutional apathy
Informalisation of labour
Weak enforcement of safety protocols
Poor state capacity in local bodies
The way forward lies not just in legal bans, but in mechanisation, accountability, and dignity for sanitation workers. Until then, the phrase “manual scavenging has been eliminated” will remain a bureaucratic illusion.
Urban India 2030–2050: A Call for Action
Key Highlights of the Report
Prepared by: World Bank in collaboration with Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).
Title: Towards Resilient and Prosperous Cities in India.
Main Forecasts:
By 2050, India’s urban population to reach 951 million.
By 2030, cities to generate 70% of all new employment.
Estimated investment needed: $2.4 trillion by 2050 to make cities climate-resilient.
If cities don’t adapt, annual flood-related losses may reach:
$5 billion by 2030
$30 billion by 2050
Relevance : GS 1(Society ) , GS 2(Social Issues)
Urban Resilience Challenges
1. Rising Urban Climate Risks
Urban India faces two major shocks:
Flooding
Extreme heat
Study of 10 major Indian cities (1983–2016) shows:
71% increase in dangerous heat events.
Urban Heat Island Effect: Cities get hotter at night due to concrete and asphalt trapping heat.
2. Concrete Urbanization Worsens Flooding
Increased construction limits rainwater absorption.
Cities growing in flood-prone areas without risk adaptation.
Heat-related deaths may exceed 3 lakh per year by 2050 if unaddressed.
Governance & 74th Constitutional Amendment Issues
74th Amendment (1992): Provided autonomy to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
Problem: Many states have not fully implemented it.
Cities with greater decision-making autonomy have:
Mobilized more resources.
Monetized assets better.
Shown higher accountability.
World Bank recommends devolution of power to local governments for better urban resilience.
Key Recommendations from the Report
National & State-Level Reforms:
Improve risk assessments.
Mobilize private investments.
Set urban resilience standards.
Create a financing roadmap.
Local Interventions:
Urban greening, cool roofs, early/late work shifts to beat heat.
Resilient infrastructure, particularly in high-risk flood zones.
Financial Needs:
$150 billion needed for flood resilience in next 15 years alone.
Policy Implications for India
Cities are economic growth engines but increasingly vulnerable.
Climate adaptation must be mainstreamed in urban planning, especially in Tier-1 and Tier-2 cities.
Implementation of the 74th Amendment is key to empower cities.
Urban resilience needs to be viewed as an investment, not a cost.